GEO 130: Physical Geography
Spring, 2005


January 13: Introduction to course. In groups, students discussed what is included in the study of geography. Please note that class projects will involve conducting research on the physical geography of the place you call home.

January 18: Chapter 1
Homework for Thursday: Complete www.myfootprint.org quiz and note your observations about it; write an explanatory sentence about each of the bolded key terms in Chapter 2.

Chapter 1 includes some of the basic concepts that we will use throughout the course. Please consult your textbook for further information about these topics.

Derivation of the word: Geography = geo (Earth) + graphein (to write)

Scientific method: Physical geography employs the scientific method – application of common sense in an organized and objective manner
•    Look at the chart on page 7
•    If patterns are discovered, researcher may formulate a hypothesis – a formal generalization of a principle
•    Theory – extensively test hypothesis, a theory represents truly broad principles

Systems: Often, physical geographers are trying to understand various systems. A system is any ordered, interrelated set of things and their attributes, linked by flows of energy and matter
•    Systems can be open or closed
•    Ecosystems are open, energy and matter flow in and out
•    The earth is an open system in terms of energy (the sun’s energy flows in and some is reflected out), but in terms of matter, the Earth is, for all practical purposes, a closed system

•    In systems, there are negative feedbacks and positive feedbacks. In this case, negative does not necessarily mean bad and positive does not necessarily mean good. Take for example, a plant. It uses sunlight, carbon dioxide, nutrients from the soil, water to produce sugars (which are stored); this is called photosynthesis. If the soil has been dry and then it rains, the rain water is a positive feedback. The plant will be able to store more sugar – and grow. If it keeps on raining, until the ground is mud, then after a while, we have a negative feedback. The plant has too much water, and may die.

•    Now let’s say we’re talking about humans. A person may be depressed and eat too much – and gain weight. The person may be even more depressed by the weight gain, and eat even more. This is a positive feedback. If the person is able to get the excess weight off and maintains that stable weight, the system is in steady-state equilibrium.

Models: Models are simplified, idealized representation of part of the real worl
•    Model of the hydrologic system
•    Modeling is used also to make predictions – general circulation model

Spheres
•    The earth is not perfectly round (it is not a perfect sphere) – it has a bulge around the equator in response to greater centrifugal force, because it is moving faster

•    Biotic (living) = biosphere
•    Abiotic (non-living) = atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere
•    These 4 spheres are not independent units in nature, so their boundaries must be thought of as transition zones, not sharp boundaries

The 5 themes are (page 4):
•    Location
•    Region
•    Human-Earth relationships
•    Movement
•    Place

Location:
•    Relative
•    Absolute
        Latitude – parallels – 23.5 N (Cancer), 23.5 S (Capricorn); 66.5 N (Arctic Circle), 66.5 S (Antarctic Circle
   
        Longitude – meridians
        Prime Meridian – through Greenwich, England
        360 degrees in circle divided by 24 hours per day = 15 degrees per hour … day officially begins at International Date                 Line… earth turns eastward. US: Boston 1 hour later than Birmingham, 1 hour later than Denver, one hour later than San         Francisco … east side of international date line, 1 hour easier than on other side

        great circle – plane coincides with the center of the earth Airplanes tend to fly in great circles, and is the reason for the                 large population of people from Hong Kong in Vancouver, BC

Maps:
•    You can’t take a globe and flatten it out without having some distortion.
•    Distortion can be – distance (proximity), direction, area, shape
        Greenland isn’t really very big; it’s a function of the projection

•    Types of maps:
         Thematic = the map has a theme (e.g., population)
        Cartogram = the place sized according to characteristic being depicted (e.g., population, with countries being sized                     according to population
        Dot = dot represents a quantity (e.g., 1 dot equals 100,000 people)
        Choropleth = colors are used to show range (e.g., populations 25-75 per square mile in pink; population 76-125 in blue,         and so on)
        Isoline = line connects locations with the same characteristic (e.g., temperatures 90 and above)

•    Scale = ratio of the image on the map to the real world… given same size map (say 11” X 17”), smaller scale and larger             area; large scale and small area

•    generation of maps
        remote sensing, e.g., satellites
        GPS (global positioning system)

•    GIS – geographic information systems
        Computer-based, data-processing tool for gathering, manipulating, and analyzing geographic information

January 20: Chapter 2
Homework for Tuesday: Pick two of the websites embedded in the text of Chapter 3. Go into those websites and see what information is available. Write one paragraph on each website, explaining what you found.

•    Milky Way Galaxy – a flattened, disk-shaped mass in space estimated to contain up to 400 billion stars; includes our Solar System
•    Gravity – the mutual force exerted by the masses of objects that are attracted one to another; produced in an amount proportional to each object’s mass
•    Planetesimal hypothesis (dust-cloud hypothesis) – proposes a process by which early protoplanets formed from the condensing masses of a nebular cloud of dust, gas, and icy comets; a formation process now being observed in other parts of the galaxy
•    Speed of light – specifically, 186,282 miles per second or 5.9 trillion miles per year – a distance known as a light year; at light speed Earth is 8 minutes and 20 seconds from the sun
•    Perihelion – the point of Earth’s closest approach to the Sun in its elliptical orbit; occurs on January 3 at 91.5 million miles; variable over a 100,000 year cycle
•    Aphelion – the point of Earth’s greatest distance from the Sun in its elliptical orbit; reached on July 4 at a distance of 94.5 million miles; variable over a 100,000 year cycle
•    Plane of the ecliptic – a plane (flat surface) intersecting all the points of Earth’s orbit
•    Fusion – the process of forcibly joining positively charged hydrogen and helium nuclei under extreme temperature and pressure; occurs naturally in thermonuclear reactions within stars, such as our Sun
•    Solar wind – clouds of ionized (charged) gases emitted by the Sun and traveling in all directions from the Sun’s surface. Effects on Earth include auroras, disturbance of radio signals, and possible influences on weather
•    Sunspots – Magnetic disturbances on the surface of the Sun; occurring in an average 11-year cycle; related flares, prominences, and outbreaks produce surges in solar wind
•    Magnetosphere – Earth’s magnetic force field, which is generated by dynamo-like motions within the planet’s outer core; deflects the solar wind flow toward the upper atmosphere above each pole
•    Auroras – a spectacular glowing light display in the ionosphere, stimulated by the interaction of the solar wind with oxygen and nitrogen gases and atoms at high latitudes, called aurora borealis in the Northern Hemisphere and aurora australis in the Southern Hemisphere
•    Electromagnetic spectrum – All the radiant energy produced by the Sun placed in an ordered range, divided according to wavelengths
•    Wavelength – a measurement of a wave; the distance between the crests of successive waves. The number of waves passing a fixed point in one second is called the frequency of the wavelength.
•    Thermopause – a zone approximately 300 miles in altitude that serves conceptually as the top of the atmosphere; an altitude used for the determination of the solar constant
•    Insolation – Solar radiation that is intercepted by Earth
•    Solar constant – The amount of insolation intercepted by Earth on a surface perpendicular to the Sun’s rays when Earth is at its average distance from the Sun; a value of 1.968 calories per square centimeter per minutes; average over the entire globe at the thermopause
•    Subsolar point – the only point receiving perpendicular insolation at a given moment – the Sun directly overhead (see declination)
•    Sun’s altitude – the angular distance between the horizon (a horizontal plane) and the Sun (or any point in the sky) … e.g., at sunrise/sunset, the Sun is at the horizon, so its altitude is 0 degrees. If the Sun reaches the point directly overhead, it is at 90 degrees altitude
•    Declination – the latitude that receives direct overhead insolation on a particular day; the subsolar point migrates annually through 47 degrees of latitude between the Tropics of Cancer (23.5 north) and Capricorn (23.5 south)
•    Daylength – Duration of exposure to insolation, varying during the year depending on latitude; an important aspect of seasonality
•    Revolution – the annual orbital movement of Earth about the Sun; determines the length of the year and the seasons
•    Rotation – the turning of Earth on its axis; averages about 24 hours in duration; determines day-night relation; counterclockwise when viewed from the North Pole; from above the equator, west to east or eastward.
•    Circle of illumination – the division between light and dark on Earth; a day-night great circle
•    Axial tilt – Earth’s axis tilts 23.5 degrees from a perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic (plane of Earth’s orbit around the Sun)
•    Axial parallelism – Earth’s axis remains aligned the same throughout the year (it “remains parallel to itself”) thus the axis extended from the North Pole points into space always near Polaris, the North Star
•    Sunrise – The moment when the disk of the Sun first appears above the horizon
•    Sunset – The moment when the disk of the Sun totally disappears
•    Winter solstice (December solstice) – That time when the Sun’s declination is at the Tropic of Capricorn, at 23.5 degrees South latitude, December 21-22 each year. The day is 24 hours long south of the Antarctic Circle. The night is 24 hours long north of the Arctic Circle.
•    Vernal equinox (March equinox) – The time around March 20-21 each year when the Sun’s declination crosses the equatorial parallel and all places on Earth experience days and nights of equal length. The Sun rises at the North Pole and sets at the South Pole
•    Summer solstice (June solstice) – The time when the Sun’s declination is at the Tropic of Cancer, at 23.5 degrees North latitude; June 20-21 each year
•    Autumnal equinox (September equinox) – The time around September 22-23 when the Sun’s declination cross the equatorial parallel and all places on Earth experience days and nights of equal length. The Sun rises at the South Pole and sets at the North Pole

•    The Milky Way Galaxy is the galaxy with which we are most familiar … but there are tens of billions of galaxies – each with billions of stars
•    we are learning more and more about origins of the universe by studying stars whose light has taken several billion years to reach us
•    The Hubble Telescope is the telescope in space – above the atmosphere for better visibility

•    Our sun is in the Milky Way Galaxy.
•    It is located on a remote, trailing edge of the Milky Way, a flattened, disk-shaped mass est. to contain up to 400 B stars

•    It is both unique to us and commonplace in our galaxy.
•    It is only average temp, size, color compared with other stars, but it is the ultimate energy source for almost all life processes in our biosphere
•    Planets don’t produce their own energy

•    Earth’s origin
•    According to prevailing theory: our solar system condensed from a large, slowly rotating, collapsing cloud of dust and gas called a NEBULA
•    As the nebular cloud organized and flattened into a disk shape, the earth proto-Sun grew in mass at the center, drawing more matter to it
•    Small protoplanets swirled at varying distances from ctr of solar nebula
•    Beginnings of sun and solar estimated to have occurred over 4.6 B years ago
•    These processes are now observed as occurring elsewhere in the galaxy. Astronomers so far have observed almost 2 dozen stars with planets orbiting about them

•    Earth from sun
•    Earth orbits the sun in an elliptical pattern (oval-shaped)
•    Average distance is 93 million miles
•    Perihelion – closest position (Jan 3) – 91.5 M
•    Aphelion – farthest position (July 4) – 94.5 M
•    It takes the sun’s light 8 minutes and 20 seconds to reach earth

•    Sun’s energy
•    Solar mass produces tremendous pressure and high temps deep in its dense interior region
•    Under these conditions, pairs of hydrogen nuclei, the lightest of all natural elements, are forced to fuse together – called fusion
•    In the fusion process, helium is formed (2nd lightest element in nature)
•    Enormous quantities of energy in form of free protons, neutrons, electrons are released
•    Each second, sun consumes 657 million tons of hydrogen and converts it to 652.5 million tons of helium
•    the difference of 4.5 million tons is the quantity that is converted directly to energy ---  literally disappearing solar mass

•    sunspot
•    regular cycle exists for sunspot occurrences, average 11 years from max peak to max peak
•    recently, 1990 and 2001 were extremely active sunspot years
•    2001 – sunspot activity caused auroras to be visible at lower latitudes

•    Earth’s magnetosphere
•    Solar wind = clouds of electrically charged particles – mostly hydrogen nuclei and free electrons
•    Interaction of solar wind and upper layers of earth’s atmosphere produces some remarkable phenomena – the auroras (northern lights), disruption of certain radio broadcasts and satellite transmissions, possible effects on weather patterns
•    Earth’s outer defense against the solar wind is the MAGNETOSPERE – the magnetic force field surrounding earth
•    Magnetosphere generated by dynamic motions w/I our planet
•    As solar wind approaches earth, magenetosphere deflects them … points of entry for the solar winds are poles

•    Electromagnetic spectrum
•    All the radiant energy produced by the sun is in the form of electromagnetic energy
•    UV, X-ray, gamma = 8%
•    Visible = 47%
•    Infrared = 45%
•    Hot = short wavelength …. Cooler = long wavelength
•    Sun emits short wavelength and earth emits long wavelength (mostly infrared)

•    Solar constant
•    Solar constant is the average radiant energy from the sun at the thermopause (which is the top of the atmosphere – 300 miles up) when 93 M miles from the sun (the average distance)
•    It is constant over time – which is a good thing for life on earth

•    Seasons and daylengths
•    The earth is tilted on its axis – 23.5 degrees
•    As a result, the sun’s altitude changes throughout the year … depending upon where you are, sometimes the sun appears high in the sky or low
•    The sun is never actually directly overhead for us in Kentucky … we are at just over 38 degrees North … the overhead sun moves between 23.5 North and 23.5 S (tropic of capricorn and cancer) …
•    [subsolar = directly overhead]

•    when sun is directly overhead at 23.5 S – winter solstice for us = shortest day of the year (Dec 20-21) = first day of winter
•    equator – spring equinox = equal day and night
•    when at 23.5 N – summer solstice
•    equator – fall equinox = equal day and night
•    Seasonality means a changing duration of exposure, or daylength, which varies during the year depending on latitude
•    People living at the equator always receive equal hours of day and night
•    Whereas people living along 40 degree N or S latitude experience about 6 hours’ of difference in daylight hours between winter and summer
•    Those at 50 degree N or S latitude experience almost 8 hours of annual daylength variation
•    At the poles, 6 mo period of no insolation to 6 mo of continuous 24 hour daylight

•    Earth
•    Revolution around sun = just over 365 days - determines the seasons
•    Rotation = 24 hours … determines daylength, produces apparent deflection of winds and ocean currents, produces twice daily action of the tides in relation to gravitational pull of sun and moon

GEO 130: January 20, 2005 Review
(1) Zero degrees latitude passes through the Equator. Zero degrees     longitude passes through Greenwich, England and is called the__ (2) You have four 9” X 12” maps: one of (a) the United States, (b) North America, (c) Kentucky, and (d) the world. Which has the smallest scale? __ (3) On the nightly news, the meteorologist shows a map on which points with equal temperature are connected. This is an example of a/an __ map. (4) Airplanes fly them. Sea navigators use them. A/an __ is an imaginary plane that splits the earth into two equal parts. The Equator and all the lines of longitude are examples. (5) The earth has four spheres. Name the biotic sphere: __ (6) The earth __ on its axis, completing a complete turn every 24 hours. The earth __ around the sun. It is closest to the sun on January 3rd; this is called the__. Our shortest day of the year, on December 21 or 22, is called the __. (7) The Earth has a magnetic force field around it. This force field protects us from the __, which is composed of ionized gases emitted from the Sun. The __, which are glowing light displays in the ionosphere, occur as a result of the interaction of these ionized gas clouds with oxygen, nitrogen, and atoms. (8) The top of the atmosphere is about 300 miles up; this top point is called the __.

January 25: Chapter 3

Review from last time: the upper edge of our atmosphere is called what? Thermopause. Beyond the thermopause, it is a near vacuum (exosphere) – hydrogen and helium atoms

•    When we’re on the earth’s surface, air is compressed b/c of gravity. At sea level 14.7 # per square inch average force exerted

•    Earth’s atmosphere … starting from earth and going out
•    Composition
•    Homosphere --- relatively uniform blend of gases (Nitrogen 78% and Oxygen 21%)
•    Heterosphere --- begins at about 50 miles up (Not uniform gas mixtures; Oxygen and nitrogen (lower elevations) to hydrogen and helium (higher elevations)

•    Temperature
•    Troposphere (90% of the total mass of the atmosphere and bulk of all water vapor, clouds, air pollution, life forms are here. On average, temperature drops 3.5 F per 1000 feet (normal lapse rate). Normal lapse rate varies a lot, e.g., temperature inversion, with temp decrease and then increase at some point
•    Stratosphere (11-31 miles. At 11 miles = –70 F …. At 31 miles = 0 F)
•    Mesophere (30-50 miles up. Coldest portion of the atmosphere --- average –130 F)
•    Thermosphere (about 50 miles-300 miles up. Not many molecules, so there isn’t heat but the temperature is high (kinetic energy – vibration of molecules – of molecules)

•    Function
•    Ozonosphere (O3 absorbs UV and re-radiates at longer wavelengths – infrared radiation. In the 1920s – began monitoring ozone layer. In 1974, Rowland and Molina hypothesized chlorine atoms destroy ozone. In fact, there is thinning of ozone layer [hole], especially over Antarctic in spring (Sept to Nov) and also Arctic. Exposure to UV can result in skin cancer [melanoma is the most dangerous type], cataracts, and problems for sea life. The ozone destroyers include CFCs, halons, methyl bromide. A single chlorine atom decomposes > 100,000 ozone molecules. By 1998, 24 M tons of CFCs sold worldwide. Montreal Protocol negotiated in 1987 and amended several times in 1990s - stops legal production [on a set timeline] of a number of ozone-destroying chemicals.)
•    Ionosphere (Absorbs cosmic rays, gamma rays, X-rays, shorter wavelengths of UV --- changes atoms to positively charged ions and giving the ionosphere its name)

•    Volcanic eruptions, trees,  forest fires, and other natural events/species produce nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide. However, life evolved with these sources.

Air pollution:
•    When talk about air pollution, we’re generally talking about sources that are anthropogenic – caused by humans
•    Mexico City is considered to be the unhealthiest city in the world for children
•    2% of annual deaths in US attributable to air pollution (50,000)
•    big contributor to air pollution in US and Canada – automobiles. In fact, transportation (US) is responsible for 77% of carbon monoxide emissions, 47% of VOCs, 56% of NOX, and 25% of particulates.
•    In Los Angeles, the connection between smog and automobile has been apparent over half a century, yet mass transit declined, railroads dwindled, private automobile use increased. Gas mileage actually decreased 2001 to 2002

•    Criteria pollutants: Are ubiquitous air pollutants that cause harm to human health and the environment
•    Carbon monoxide (CO) - comes from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels; associated with central nervous system problems
•    Ozone (O3) - secondary pollutant from combination of nitrogen oxide, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), in the presence of sun; associated with respiratory problems
•  Nitrogen oxides (NOX) - from high temperature combusion of fossil fuels; associated with respiratory problems
•    Sulfur oxides (SOX), primarily sulfur dioxide - comes from combustion of coal and from other processes that emit sulfur; associated with respiratory problems
•    Lead (Pb) - from lead-based paint, leaded gasoline, battery recycling; associated with central nervous system disorders. Environmental lead levels have been greatly reduced in the U.S.
•    Particulates - any number of things, from dust to asbestos fibers; the smallest (less than 10 microns) fibers are the most dangerous; associated with a plethora of problems, including respiratory problems and cancers

•    VOCs, e.g., gasoline, paints, drycleaner fluid and so on, vaporize and can often be smelled. They are not regulated as criteria pollutants and control of them is difficult..
•    Carbon dioxide is not designated as a pollutant in the U.S., although it is the major contributor to global warming. We will discuss carbon dioxide in more depth later in the semester.

Acid rain
•    Normal rain is slightly acidic because of the presence of carbon dioxide (and thus carbonic acid) in the atmosphere. Normal rain is about  5.65 pH
•   In the atmosphere, sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides combine with water, forming sulfuric acid and nitric acid. The damage is extensive, to forests, lake, and other ecosystems. In Germany and Poland, up to 50% of forest dead or damaged, mostly as a result of acid rain. The government estimates the damage in US, Canada, Europe from acid rain at $50 B annually.

Clean Air Act
•    This important legislation was passed in 1970, and has been amended several times since then.
•    A study showed that the total direct costs of the Clean Air Act, from 1970-1990, at $523 B, while the direct benefits 1970-1990 were estimated at $5.6 to 49.4 Trillion (with the mid-range benefits = $21.7 Trillion net financial benefit)

Energy Alternatives
•    About 31% of the sun’s energy that arrives is bounced back to space w/o being absorbed or performing any work; this is known as Albedo – reflective quality of a surface. For example, a light-colored roof has 35-50% albedo and fresh snow = 80-95% albedo
•     The insolation receipt in just 35 minutes at the surface of the U.S. exceeds the amt of energy derived from the burning of fossil (coal, oil, natural gas) in a YEAR!

We watched a clip from "Race to Save the Planet: Do We Really Want to Live This Way?" When this video was produced a few years ago, Los Angeles had the worst air quality of any US city. LA has experienced explosive growth and, with that growth, a growth in cars and factories. Over 12 million live in the LA basin, a 1300 square mile area. The mountains act as a natural trap for pollutants. By mid-morning gases are trapped under an inversion. The smog doesn't begin to break up until late in the evening. The pollution is a result of the consumptive lifestyle, with its 3.5 million cars on the freeways. LA's freeways were already showing stress by the 1950s. In the late 1940s, residents were complaining of eye irritation, cracking of rubber, and crop damage. The most obvious culprit was backyard burning and industry, but even after those sources were cleaned up, the problem persisted. It was discovered that ozone was being formed from nitrogen oxides + hydrocarbons, under the southern California sun. For the first time, cars were seen as polluters. Automakers and citizens didn't want to believe it and set out to disprove the idea, but it was true. In 1963, California vehicles had no emission controls. In 1975, the catalytic converter was introduced. It has done more than anything to clean up auto emissions. For a number of years, LA has been monitoring air quality. The air filters are stored at the regional laboratory. Today, the filters are still grey (particulates), but the filters used to look much worse. The air quality problems extend beyond LA, up to the San Bernardino Mountains 100 miles away. Over the last 30 years, exposure to ozone has weakened the trees. Many do not have enough needles to make the needed energy and so, eventually, they are attacked and killed (for example, by the bark beetle). In the laboratory, we saw what ozone will do to a healthy person. An athlete was exposed to 390 ppm of ozone. He, at intervals, rode a stationary bike and rested. At first he was okay, but soon he was experiencing shortness of breath, chest pain, runny nose, cough, headache, and an overall "blah" feeling. He had to quit before the time was up.

Geography 130 Review: January 25 Review
(1) In the homosphere, gases are relatively uniformly blended. The main two gases are __ and __. (2) In the troposphere, the temperature usually drops 3.5 degrees F for every 1000 feet in elevation. This average temperature drop is called the __. (3) The ozonosphere provides a critical service for the earth. This layer absorbs dangerous __. What is one health problem associated with exposure to this type of radiation? __. A number of chemicals damage the ozonosphere. Name one of these chemicals: __ (4) The biggest single contributor to air pollution in North America is __. (5) In the video “Race to Save the Planet: Do We Really Want to Live This Way?” we learned about air pollution in Los Angeles. If turned out that the pollutant causing health problems and crop damage was __. How is it formed at ground level? __ (6) Criteria pollutants include __, produced as the result of incomplete combustion. The molecules combine with oxygen; exposure can kill you. (7) What type of particulates is most dangerous? __ (8) Sulfur dioxide is a criteria pollutant. Much of it is emitted by __. (9) Natural rain is a little bit acidic. Why? ___ (10) The pollutant precursors to acid rain are __ and __. (11) Many believe global warming to be our most serious environmental problem. Name two of the gases that are building up in the atmosphere and trapping heat: __ and __
(12) The reflective quality of a surface is known as its __. (13) Solar energy is making a come-back. What is one application with wide applicability in the poorer countries of the world? __

January 27: Chapter 4

•    in the US, solar water heaters were in widespread use in the early years of the 1900s.
•    1958 – photovoltaic cells began to be used in spacecraft
•    1973 – oil embargo … solar energy tax incentives, solar panels up at White House ….
•    1981 – Reagan into office, took down the solar panels
•    solar is beginning to make a come-back
•    worldwide capacity tripled between 1996 and 2000
•    utilizing solar technology very valuable for rich world, but also for poorer countries
•    fuel wood scarce
•    solar-panel cookers
•    1998, 250,000 homes in Mexico, Indonesia, S. Africa, India, etc. had PV roof systems
•    Norway, at same high latitudes as Alaska, has 60,000 units operating and adding 8000 new PV systems a year
•    2000 PV power systems operating in Navajo Nation of northeastern Arizona

In-class exercise, groups of two:
1. Why is the sky blue? Because of Rayleigh scattering. The shorter the wavelength, the greater the scattering (and the longer, the less scattering). The shorter wavelengths of visible light (blues and violets) scatter the most and dominate the lower atmosphere. Because there are more blue than violet wavelengths in sunlight, blue sky prevails (sky filled with smog and haze because the particles in air pollution tend to scatter all wavelengths of visible light, making the sky appear almost white).
2. Do clouds warm or cool the planet – or both?
Both - The high cloud (cirrus) tend to hold in heat, while the lower clouds (such as stratus) tend to reflect insolation
3. What causes a rainbow?
A rainbow is caused by refraction. As insolation enters the atmosphere, it changes speed (as enters heavier atmosphere) and direction – this bending action is called refraction. Like a prism that separates light into its component colors, visible light passing through many raindrops is refracted and reflected toward the observer at a precise angle.
4. What is albedo? Which has a higher albedo, the tropical rainforest or snow at Aspen? Albedo is reflective quality of a surface (a light roof = 35-50% albedo; fresh snow = 80-95% albedo) Aspen’s snow would have a much higher albedo.
5. Is the phenomenon of wind flowing from cool water to warm land an example of advection or convection? How do you know? It is an example of advection, because advection has to do with horizontal motion. Convection has to do with vertical motion. Have you ever wondered why it is almost always breezy near a coast? During the day, the land is warmer than the water; the wind moves from sea to land. At night, the land is cooler than the water; the wind moves from land to sea. In Bangladesh, the shallow water in the Ganges delta can be easily moved by the winds. Thousands already die when these waves of water inundate the delta.
6. If you are perspiring in a dry climate, the sweat will evaporate and cool you. What is this phenomenon called?
Latent heat is absorbed into water vapor, when water goes from a liquid to a gas. It is called the latent heat of evaporation (the energy stored in water vapor as water evaporates).
The energy is released when water goes from a gas to a liquid (as when it rains). Everyone has heard of “heat lightning” – tremendous heat releases into the atmosphere during thunderstorms.
7. In the summertime, if you go to downtown Lexington before traveling to rural Woodford County, you will notice that it is cooler in Woodford County. Why is this? What is this phenomenon called?
Cities have dust domes of airborne pollution, which acts like low-lying clouds, keeping in heat. The albedos of urban surfaces are lower, meaning that more radiation is absorbed. Buildings interrupt wind flows, so heat loss through advection (horizontal movement) is reduced. Use of electricity, etc. to cool helps warm the outdoors.
8. Our planet is like a greenhouse. What makes up the “roof” of our greenhouse? It is carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, nitrogen oxide, CFCs, and some other gases. Fifty years from now, the global temperatures could be 3-4 degrees C warmer.
Carbon dioxide is part of the "blanket" that warms our earth; without it, the earth's temperature would be 40 degrees but, with it, the earth is a comfortable 59 degrees. Carbon dioxide is circulated via the carbon cycle. Humans and other animals breathe in oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. Half the carbon goes into the top layers of the ocean. Plants take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. When the plants decay, some of the carbon in their tissues is given off as carbon dioxide. Other carbon stays in the soil. From ice cores, we know that prior to the Industrial Revolution, the earth's atmosphere had 280 ppm of carbon dioxide.
This concentration is now rapidly increasing. In fact, at the observatory in Hawaii, monitoring shows that carbon dioxide concentrations have risen from 315 ppm in 1958 to over 340 ppm in 1989.
 
Homework for Tuesday (February 1): Find a recent (within the past 6 months) article about the Gulf Stream. Print it. Read it. Bring it to class.

Chapter 5: February 1

Students shared information about the Gulf Stream. Because of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, Great Britain, Iceland, and western Europe are warmer than would be expected based upon their latitude. As the glaciers melt, Arctic water is becoming less salty and slightly warmer - less dense. Less dense water does not sink as rapidly as denser water, and so the mechanism that propels the Gulf Stream could be shut off. I collected the articles.

Temperature – is a measure of the kinetic energy (motion) of individual molecules in matter. We feel the effects of temperature as the sensible heat transfer from warmer objects to cooler objects. Heat energy – energy that is added to or removed from a system or substance

temperature scales:
absolute zero (when all atomic and molecular motion in matter completely stops -
-273 Celsius (used to be called Centigrade)
-459.4 Fahrenheit (U.S. only major country that uses this scale)
0 Kelvin … (1848, Lord Kelvin, actual temperature at which kinetic energy begins)

To convert Fahrenheit (F) to Celsius (C), use the following formulas:
F = [C  x  9/5] + 32
C = [F – 32] divided by 9/5

The melting point for ice = 32 F, but there are many freezing points for water [from -40 F to 32 F, depending on its purity and volume and conditions in the atmosphere]

To measure temperature, can either use mercury of alcohol, but if it is very cold, use alcohol (which freezes at -170 F, while mercury freezes at -38.2 F)

For official temperatures, thermometer is housed in a white box (for high albedo) with louvers (for ventilation). Temperature readings are taken daily (or more frequently) at over 15,400 weather stations worldwide.

Latitude: The temperature is most affected by insolation (sun’s energy) – and this is at its maximum at the subsolar point (where the sun is directly overhead). As we have already learned, the subsolar points moves between 23.5 N and 23.5 S. So the further north and south, the cooler the temperature.

Altitude: In the troposphere, the normal lapse rate is 3.5 F per 1000 feet. So, the temperatures will be lower on the peak of a mountain than at sea level. The air is also thinner on the mountain peak, so the cooling will be greater at night.

There are even glaciers near the equator. They are at or above 16,400 feet. One finds these permanent glaciers (although they are now being lost due to global warming) in South America (the Andes) and east Africa (Mt. Kilimanjaro).

Cloud cover:
About 50% of the earth is cloud covered at any given moment.
Lower clouds – in the daytime, they block some of the sun’s insolation; at night, they insulate the earth. Cloud cover generally moderates the temperature, with less of a range between day and night temperatures. Of course, as we’ve already learned, this scenario does not hold true for high clouds.

Land-water:
Land heats and cools faster than water. The reason for this is that water can hold about 4 times more heat than can soil or rock (it has a higher specific heat), so day to day temperatures in a large body of water is moderated.
Water covers about 71% of the earth’s surface, but 84% of all evaporation is from the oceans.
Land is opaque (you can’t see through it) and water is transparent ( you can see through it). So, while light doesn’t penetrate into the soil, it penetrates water to an average depth of 200 feet (the illuminated zone is called the photic layer)

Marine effect – locations where temperatures are moderated because of being near the ocean (Vancouver, BC, with annual range of 28.8 F)
Continental effect – areas less affected by oceans and thus having a greater swing between maximum and minimum temperatures (Winnipeg, Manitoba, with annual range of 68.4 F)

Isotherm – isoline that connects points of equal temperature

Thermal equator – an isoline connecting all points of highest mean temperature (see Figure 5.14 on page 131). Compare 50 N and S – why is 50 N so much colder? Because the sun is directly overhead ~ 20 S, and also because of the large land masses in the northern hemisphere that are far away from the moderating influences of water. You can see this phenomenon better on page 134 (Figure 5.17)

It is very uncomfortable when the temperature is high, the humidity is high, and there is not much wind. The heat index measures the body’s reaction to a combination of air temperature and water vapor. The book makes the point that high heat index days can be very dangerous – for example, Chicago in July of 1995 that claimed 700 lives, just in Chicago. Look on page 137 (on figure 2). If the relative humidity is 90% and the air temperature is 90 degrees F, what is the heat index temperature? 120. This is a category II – danger. Sunstroke, heat cramps, heat exhaustion likely.

On the other end, cold temperatures can be very uncomfortable (and dangerous) too. The wind-chill factor, first proposed by Antarctic explorer (Paul Siple) in 1939, takes into account the amount of heat loss because of wind. Look on page 136. If the air temperature (in Fahrenheit) is 10 degrees and the wind is blowing at 25 mph, what is the wind chill? -11. If the wind was blowing 25 mph, what temperature would put you at danger of frostbite? 0 degrees F (the wind chill would be -24 F)

The period 1970-2001 were the warmest years in the history of instrumental measurements. The IPCC, in major reports released in 1990, 1992, 1995, 2001, stated that these temperatures are because of global warming caused by humans.

Review: (1) All atomic and molecular motion in matter completely stops at 0 degrees Kelvin. This is known as __. (2) If you go to Canada and see a temperature of 10 degrees on the bank reader board, you know that is the temperature in Celsius. What is the temperature in Fahrenheit? (3) The melting point for ice is 32 F. What is the freezing point for water?__ (4) Why are the boxes for official temperature readings white, with louvers? __ (5) Temperatures get cooler as you go north and south from the Equator. They also get cooler as you go up in altitude, even at the Equator. What is an example of an Equatorial mountain, with permanent glaciers (or they were permanent until they began melting as a result of global warming)?__ (6) Vancouver, BC and Winnipeg, Manitoba are on about the same line of latitude, yet Winnipeg has a large range in annual temperature (of 68.4 F) while Vancouver has a small range (28.8 F). Why is that? (7) A/an __ is an isoline that connects points of equal temperature.
(8) If the air temperature is 100 F and the relative humidity is 60%, this is a Category II temperature that can cause sunstroke. This measure is called the __. (9) In 1990, 1992, 1995, and 2001, the IPCC released reports warning of anthropogenic global warming. IPCC stands for __.

February 3: Chapter 6

Winds from volcanic eruptions can move the sulfur oxides, particulates, and other debris around the globe.
•    1815: Mt. Tambora, Indonesia --- 1816 – year w/o a summer
•    1991: Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines – 20 M tons SO2

Global winds are an important reason why US, former USSR, Great Britain signed the 1963 Limited Test Ban Treaty which banned above-ground testing of nuclear weapons.

Air pressure is a produce of temperature and density of a mass of air. At sea level, downward pressure of air is 29.92 inches.
Varies from 25.69 (earth’s record low) to 32.01 (earth’s record high). Measuring via a barometer (either a Mercury barometer [mercury is a heavy metal, but it is also a liquid] or an Aneroid barometer – means “using no liquid”)

Winds are produced by differences in air pressure from one location to another. The two principal properties of wind are speed and direction. An anemometer measures wind speed and a wind vane measures wind direction. Winds are named for the direction from which they originate. For examle, westerly wind (come from the west and blow east). Four forces determine the speed and direction of winds: (1) gravity – compresses the atmosphere worldwide; (2) pressure gradient force: drives air from areas of higher barometric pressure (more dense air) to areas of lower barometer pressure (less dense air) – causing winds; on a warm day, temperature of air increases, air is less dense and more buoyant, it rises; on a cold day, the temperature of the air is lower, air is denser, it descends; if you have pressure gradient changing steeply (isobars) the winds will be stronger than if gradient less steep (3) coriolos force – makes wind that travels in a straight path appear to be deflected to relation to earth’s tilted/rotating surface - deflects wind to the right in Northern hemisphere and deflects wind to the left in Southern hemisphere; and (4) friction force – drags on the wind as it moves across surfaces - slows down the wind.

Global circulation of winds: At the equator, moist, less dense air rises. Warm air has a greater capacity to hold water vapor than cool air, so low pressure at surface. At poles, cold dense air so high pressure. The trade winds are winds converging on the equatorial low-pressure trough. The doldrums is the name for the calm air along the equator, difficulty sailing ships. The horse latitudes, at about 25 degrees N and S, are zones of windless, hot, dry air; sailing crews who threw horses overboard, not wanting to share scarce food or water. The jet streams are like ocean currents in the upper atmosphere; they are weaker in summer and stronger in winter; can push polar air as far south as Textas

Local winds: The land-sea breezes are the result of land warming faster in day, air rising, and denser ocean air moving in to replace; at night, the process reverses. The mountain-valley breeze: the valley air gains heat in day, rises up the mountain slope; at night, mountain air cools quickly and moves down the mountain. The monsoon of South Asia is a summer wind that brings rain to India; in the winter, a dry wind moves from Central Asia across India.

Students watched about 17 minutes of a video called Earth Revealed: Wind, Dust, and Deserts. Reasons for deserts: (1) As the equator is warmed by insolation from the sun, the air warms and rises. As it cools, clouds are formed which result in rain and cooler air. At about 30 degrees north and south of the equator, the air is warm and dry. It is along this band that deserts are common. (2) Rain shadow: As warm air rises up a mountain, it expands and cools, leading to clouds and rain or snow. The air that comes down the other side of the mountain is very dry. It wisks up remaining moisture on the leeward side of the mountain; the result is desert conditions. (3) Plate tectonics: About 250 million years ago, Africa was much further south. About 200 million years ago, the Grand Canyon was a desert. As tectonic plates move, the location of deserts also moves. (4) Continental: Some deserts, such as the Gobi, are far from any significant bodies of water; a desert is the result. (5) Cold water: a few deserts exist adjacent to very cold waters (e.g., Chile and Southwest Africa); cold, off-shore marine currents chill the overlying land and reduce the capacity of the air to hold moisure.
The film also talked about flooding. In the deserts, large flash floods can occur. At the base of a hill, an alluvial fan is often created from the silt movement. Most rivers will disappear in deserts (exceptions being the Colorado River, the Nile, and the Niger). In the Mojave Desert, the Mojave River evaporates or sinks into the sand.
The silt and sand in the desert are moved by the winds. Silt can be carried across continents, as can tiny plants and animals, ash from industrial plants, and volcanic debris. Loess, which is composed of fine, blown in particles, are found in the U.S. and in eastern China. In China, the loess is 100s of meters thick; many cave dwellings have been carved out of the loess. Sand, which is heavier, bounces across the ground until it hits an obstacle. Sand dunes are built this way. Sand dunes shift slowly downwind, as sand particles move to the leeward side of the dune. Winds can also carve holes in the desert; these are called blow-outs. Sometimes so much sand is blown away that the top of the water table is reached; this creates an oasis. When the silt and sand have all blown away, only the heavy chips are left; this is called desert pavement. Desert varnish, a thin shiny coating on the rocks, also forms (from manganese oxides and clay) as a result of chemical weathering, evaporation, and precipitation of minerals. Microbes can also contribute to this process (which may take 2000 years). Human activity can also impact deserts. A fertile, green spot can be turned into a desert when the trees are cut down, the albedo increases, the rain decreases, the topsoil erodes, the temperature increases, and then desert-like conditions prevail. In the 1930s, the Dust Bowl hit the U.S. Great Plains. Fortunately, the Great Plains was saved, but desertification is a difficult and costly process to reverse.

Wind power: By 200 BC, windmills were used in China to pump water, in Persia/Middle East to grind grain. The Dutch (Netherlands) have used windmills for centuries to provide mechanical energy: pump water, grind grain, saw timber, etc. Late 1800s: pump water in American west; between 1850-1970, over 6 million small units installed. In the 1890s: wind-electric machines first appeared in Denmark and US; demise because of invention of steam engine. In the 1970s, wind turbines revived. Since the beginning of 1990s: average growth of 24% per year. By 2020, wind energy could meet 10% of world’s electricity demand. Wind power provides jobs; is cost competitive; and is environmentally sound (comparatively)

Ocean currents: The forces behind ocean currents are: (1) Driving force is frictional drag of winds; (2) Coriolis force; (3) Density differences caused by temperature and salinity; (4) Configuration of the continents and ocean floor; and (5) Tides. In the northern hemisphere, the current generally move clockwise (winds & currents about high pressure cells), while in the southern hemisphere, the general movement is counter-clockwise. Upwelling and downwelling currents are found in many places around the world. A famous upwelling, along the coast of Peru, resulted in Peru having one of the world's major fisheries (anchovies).
The cold water rises, bringing up nutrients on which the fish feed.

Review: (1) Air pressure is a function of the temperature of air and the __ of air. (2) When you checked on the wind speed and direction, you were finding out the two principal properties of wind. You found that today’s wind is blowing at 7 mph. Winds are named for the direction from which they originate; therefore, today’s winds would be called what?
(easterly winds, northerly wind, etc) __ (3) There are four forces that determine the speed and direction of winds. One is gravity and another is friction. A third, called __, means that air moves from areas of high pressure to those of low pressure. (4) Why do winds that are traveling in a straight path seem to be deflected? __ (5) It’s like the Gulf Stream, except that it is air and it is high in the atmosphere. It can push polar air into the US, as far south as Texas. This air current is called the __. (6) Which of the following is not a force behind the ocean currents? (a)seismic waves (b)salt/temperature differences (c)winds (d)coriolis force (7) The Peruvian fishery is one of the world’s major fisheries because of the presence of cold water that rises, bringing up food on which the anchovy feed. The cold rising water is called a/an __.

February 8: Chapter 7

The earth is the water planet; 70% of the earth is covered in water. Of the world's water, over 97% is ocean (salt) water, so less than 3% is freshwater. Of that, 22% is groundwater and 78% is surface water. Of the surface water, 99% is tied up in glaicers, with less than 1% of all fresh surface water being (potentially) accessible by humans and other animals. Desalination (taking the salt out of ocean water) is costly, polluting, and low output. Much groundwater is used; its use is fine usually the groundwater source is polluted or more water is taken out than goes back in from rainfall. The largest groundwater aquifer in North America underlies the Great Plains, from the Dakotas to Texas; it is called the Ogallala.

Pure water rarely found in nature because it is an excellent solvent (dissolves solids). Pure water is colorless, odorless tasteless. Water is the most common compound on earth. Among planets in Solar System, only Earth appears to be the only one that possesses water in significant quantities (However, as Ike mentioned in class, the Galileo spacecraft documented, in the 1990s, that Europa [moon of Jupiter] has an ice crust and perhaps an ocean underneath. We are also now finding that Mars has more water than previously thought – past and present existence of water near the Martian surface. And, last month (January 2005), we saw pictures of methane rain falling on Titan (moon of Saturn) and running into methane rivers.

Origin of earth’s waters: All water on earth formed within the planet, reaching earth’s surface in on-going process called outgassing, by which water and water vapor emerge from layers deep within and below the crust (as much as 15.5 miles below). In earth's early atmosphere, massive quantities of outgassed water vapor condensed and fell in torrents – and vaporized again because of high temperatures at the earth’s surface. For water to remain on earth’s surface, land temperatures had to drop below boiling point (100 C) something that occurred about 3.8 billion years ago.

Water on earth constant for at least 2 billion years, but sea levels have fluctuated, yet the earth's water is in steady-state equilibrium: the earth continuously lose water to space or it breaks down and lost water is replaced by pristine water emerging from earth. Over past 100 years, mean sea level has steadily risen, still rising. Apparent changes in sea level also related to actual physical change in landmasses (isostatic change) – continental uplift or subsidence.

The three phases of water: solid, liquid, gas
As water cools, it contracts (as expected) – greatest density at 39 F (4 C). Then hydrogen bonds form among the slower-moving molecules (forming hexagonal – 6 sided - structures) and it begins to expand. Expansion continues to temp of –20 F, w/ up to 9% increase of volume possible. Less volume = less dense, so ice is .91 as dense as water – and floats.

Latent heat
For water to change from one state to another, heat energy must be added or released. The heat energy must affect the hydrogen bonds between the molecules. For ice to melt, heat energy must increase the motion of the water molecules to break some of the hydrogen bonds. So , while there's no change in sensible temp of ice at 0 C and water at 0 C, 80 calories are required for the phase change of 1 gram of ice to 1 gram of water. This heat, called latent heat, is hidden w/in the water and liberated whenever a gram of water freezes. For 1 gram of water at 0 C to rise to 100 C, 100 calories are necessary (1 for each degree). For water to go from a liquid to vapor, 540 calories must be added to 1 gram of boiling water to achieve a phase change to water vapor. This is known as the latent heat of vaporization

Humidity is the vapor content of air; it changes according to temperature of air and temp of water vapor. Warm air has a greater capacity to hold water than cold air. Humidity affects apparent temp that we experience. If low humidity, even if hot, fairly comfortable b/c the warm air can hold more moisture and as we sweat, evaporates and cools our bodies. The relative humidity = (%) amt of water vapor actually in the air compared w/ max water vapor the air could hold at a given temp. Saturated air = holding all the water it can hold at a given temp. The dew points = the temperature at which a given mass of air becomes saturated. In the cool morning air, the air has a reduced capacity to hold water vapor so there's high humidity. Later in day, temp increases and ability to hold water increases, so lower humidity.

Clouds = parcels of air. If air mass has a higher temp than the surrounding atmosphere – or is less dense – it will continue to rise.
Similar to any gas, as the air mass rises in air, it begins to expand due to decreasing pressure in higher altitudes of the atmosphere. The adiabatic rates of heating/cooling – have to do w/ heating (down) or cooling (up) of parcel of air without exchange of heat between parcel and surrounding environment. [Remember that normal lapse rate = 3.5 F per 1000 ft and the environmental lapse rate = actual lapse rate under particular conditions have to do with air as a whole, not a parcel.] The dry adiabatic rate (DAR) is the rate at which dry (less than saturated) air cools by expansion (if ascending) or heats by compression (if descending); DAR = 5.5 F per 1000 ft. Moist adiabatic rate (MAR) is average rate at which saturated air cools by expansion (if ascending) or heats by compression (if descending); average MAR = 3.3 F per 1000 feet. Under unstable conditions, parcel of air may rise to where it becomes saturated. The air cools to the dew point temp and 100% relative humidity. Further cooling (lifting) of air parcel produces active condensation of water vapor to water.

Clouds types:
Clouds are usually classified by altitude and by shape
•    Stratiform clouds = developed horizontally and are flat and layered
•    Cumuliform = developed vertically and are puffy and globular
•    Cirroform = wispy clouds usually are quite high, composed of ice crystals

Fog is a cloud in contact w/ ground. Presence of fog tells us that air temp and dew-point temp at ground level are nearly identical, producing saturated conditions. Generally, fog capped by inversion layer, w/ as much as 50 F difference in air temp between the ground under the fog and the clear, sunny skies above

In-class exercise: (1) The amount of water on earth is in steady-state equilibrium, yet sea levels change. Why is that? (2) If you put a can of Coke in the freezer and forget about it, it may explode. Explain why this occurs. (3) As ice changes to a liquid and then to a vapor, heat is absorbed. If you have a gram of water, how much energy is necessary to get this water from a frozen state (at 32 degrees Fahrenheit) to a vaporized (gas) state? (4) There is an air parcel with a given mass of water vapor in it. Even if the water vapor remains constant, the relative humidity might go up or down. Why is this? If the air is saturated, with say 15 grams of water vapor in a kilogram of air at 20 degrees Celsius, what will happen if either additional water vapor is added or the temperature drops? (5) We’ve discussed normal lapse rate, mentioned environmental lapse rate, and now we’re seeing adiabatic rates (moist and dry). To what do these different rates apply? (6) What kind of cloud would you expect to see under the following circumstances: (a) a warm, rainy, summer day; (b) an overcast winter day; (c) a clear day, with only high wispy clouds; (d) a beautiful spring day; (e) a late fall day, with mixed rain and snow.

February 10: Chapter 8

Climate is the long-term condition. Weather is short-term, day-to-day condition of the atmosphere. Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere.

Air masses, distinctive bodies of air, initially reflect the characteristics of the source region (from the Caribbean, Canada, etc.). Types of air masses: Moisture = m (maritime – wet) or c (continental – dry) and temperature = A (arctic), AA (Antarctic), P (Polar), T (tropical), E (equatorial), so the air masses are mA, mAA, mP, cP, etc.
Continental polar (cP) – only in northern hemisphere, most developed in winter. Cold, dense cP air lifts moist, warm air in its path, producing, lifting, cooling, condensation.
Maritime polar (mP) is cool, moist, unstable conditions prevail throughout the year. Maritime tropical (mT) – mT comes from Gulf/Atlantic and mT Pacific. The humidity we experience is created by the mT Gulf/Atlantic air mass. Particularly unstable and active from late spring to early fall

4 principal lifting mechanisms operate in atmosphere
(1) convergent lifting – air flows toward area of low pressure (globally, toward equator)
(2) convectional – stimulated by local surface heating (e.g., Hawaii rains in afternoon, urban heat island, plowed field)
(3) orographic lifting – oro means mountain … air forced over a barrier. Think about the Cascades of the Pacific NW. Rain drops on west side – greener – this is the windward slope. The drier side – this is the leeward slope. Chinook winds are warm, downslope airflows (down the leeward side of the mountain). Rain shadow – apply to dry regions leeward of mtns. This is the least dominant lifting mechanism worldwide, but where you have mountains t is the most consistent of all the precipitation-inducing mechanisms. The highest precipitation levels on earth are on the windward side of mountains (Mt. Waialeale, island Kauai, Hawaii – average rain 40.5 feet/year and Cherrapunji, India – 30.5 feet in one month).
(4) frontal lifting – along the leading edge of contrasting air masses

A front is the leading edge of an advancing air mass. There are warm fronts and cold fronts
On a weather map, a cold front (cP, mP) is indicated by triangular spikes that point in the direction of frontal movement. It is cold, ground-hugging b/c of density, uniform physical character. A cold front’s advance marked by wind shift, temp drop, lower barometric pressure (due to lifting along the front). A squall line – fast-advancing cold front can cause violent lifting and create a zone right along or slightly ahead of the front … wind patterns turbulent and wildly changing .. intense precipitation. Precipitation is usually heavy – maybe hail, lightning, thunder. Afterwards – northerly winds, lower temps, increasing air pressure from cooler/denser air, broken cloud cover.

On a weather map, a warm front is indicated by a line w/ semicircles facing in direction of frontal movement. The leading edge of advancing warm air mass unable to displace cooler, passive, which is denser. Warm air tends to push cooler, underlying air into wedge shape – w/ warmer air sliding up over the cooler air. Cool air, w/ warm air above = inversion

Say you have a warm front – on average travels at 10-15 miles per hour. A cold air mass – dense, more unified, acts like a bulldozer blade – moves faster than a warm front – maybe 25 mph. The cold front will catch up to the warm front and wedge underneath it – this is called an occluded front. Initially – precipitation moderate to heavy and then declines.

Storm tracks:
Air masses tend to move across the country west to east along certain paths. Tracks further north in summer and further south in winter.

Violent weather:
Weather-related damage is increasing every year because of population increase, settlement in hazardous areas and erratic weather associated with global warming.

When summer comes, then we’ll be worrying about thunderstorms
How much energy is released when a gram of water vapor condenses – 540 calories to move from vapor to liquid and 1 calorie with each degree (Celsius) that the temperature declines. So tremendous amts of energy liberated when large quantities of water condense. As this energy is released, the air around it heats up – the density changes quickly, becomes buoyant, rising violently. Raindrops form, their frictional drag pulls air down – violent downdrafts. Result are the cumulonimbus clouds … heavy precipitation, lightning, thunder, hail, blustery winds, maybe tornadoes. In North America, most thunderstorms occur in areas dominated by mT air masses.

Lightning – enormous electrical discharges because of buildup of electrical energy between areas within cumulonimbus cloud or between cloud and ground. Violent expansion of this abruptly heated air sends shock waves through the atmosphere as the sonic bang of thunder. To figure out how far away (speed of sound is 1090 feet per second), divide 5280 feet per mile by 1090 feet per second = 4.8 (about 5 seconds) for sound to travel one mile. After a lightning flash, count the seconds, and divide by 5 to find approximately how far away the lightning was.

Tornadoes
There have been tornadoes in all 50 states and all Canadian provinces and territories
1950-2002: 43,257 tornadoes recorded in US; an annual of 87 deaths/year from tornadoes.
Begins with cumulonimbus clouds. Air moves faster at higher elevations than at ground level (b/c of the friction of the ground).
The wind begins to rotate parallel to the ground. Updrafts of air occur. As mesocyclone expands vertically and contracts horizontally (like a skater pulling in her arms to spin), the rotation speed increases.When the funnel cloud, at the bottom of the mesocyclone, touches down we have a tornado. If the tornado occurs over water, a waterspout occurs, with the water drawn up into the funnel.

Also tropical cyclones:
The deadliest Atlantic hurricane is 218 years was Hurricane Mitch in 1998. Over 12,000 were killed in Central America (Honduras was hit hard.). These cyclones originate between 23.5 N and 23.5 S. Some are powerful enough to be classified as hurricanes, typhoons, cyclones (different names in different places). The wind (mechanical energy) provide heat energy to tropical cyclones. The water must be over 79 F + slow moving low pressure. Surface air spins into the low pressure, chimney effect, pulls into more moisture-laden air. They tend to occur after the summer solstice in each hemisphere.

Study session first floor OB (at dining tables), Monday, February 14, 5-6 pm.
Test coming up on Tuesday, February 15.

GEO 130: Test #1
February 15, 2005
Key: (1) c (2) b (3) a (4) d (5) b (6) b (7) c (8) c (9) d (10) a (11) b (12) b (13) c (14) c (15) d (16) ta (17) aa (18) cc (19) ma (20) af (21) fc (22) sa (23) sb (24) md (25) gb (26) na (27) of (28) cb (29) ca (30) sd (31) ad (32) cd (33) oc (34) gc (35) ab (36) pc (37) tb (38) hd (39) pd (40) mc (41) lc (42) dc (43) ob (44) tc (45) od (46) ac (47) sc (48) oa (49) wb (50) mb
Multiple Choice: Read the questions carefully. Select the BEST response. Two (2) points each.
1. The word “geography” derives from “geo” and “graphein.” “Geo” means:
a. to write    b. the biosphere     c. the Earth        d. to map
2. All maps have some distortion, with the larger the area depicted, the greater the distortion. It is common for a map to be distorted in all of the following ways, except __.
a. distance    b. density    c. direction    d. area        e. shape
3. Which of the following maps has the largest scale?
a. a map of Lexington        b. a map of Kentucky        c. a map of the United States       
d. a map of North America
4. You are visiting friends in Central America and the sun is directly overhead. This point, the only point, receiving perpendicular solar radiation at a given moment, is called the:
a. insolation    b. solar constant    c. sunspot    d. subsolar point   
5. Which of the following is an incorrect statement about the electromagnetic spectrum?
a. short wavelengths, such as x-rays and gamma rays, are hot
b. short wavelengths, such as infrared, are fairly cool
c. of the electromagnetic energy produced by the sun, almost half is visible light
d. the earth reflects back long wavelengths, mostly infrared
6. Which of the following is an incorrect statement about Earth’s atmosphere?
a. Most of the mass of the atmosphere as well as water vapor and life forms are in the troposphere
b. In the thermosphere, molecules have a great deal of kinetic energy and so the temperature is very low
c. In the troposphere, the temperature tends to drop about 3.5 degrees F for every 1000 feet in elevation
d. The mesosphere is very cold. In fact, it is the coldest part of the atmosphere.
7. In the San Bernardino Mountains, the trees are dying. Why?
a. Carbon monoxide exposure has effectively shut down photosynthesis in the forest
b. Acid rain is killing these forests, just as these pollutants are killing temperate forests around the world
c. Ozone exposure has weakened the trees, allowing other agents (such as the bark beetle) to kill them
d. Copper arsenate is the primary culprit
8. Which of the following is not part of the explanation of why the sky is blue?
a. the sky is blue because of Rayleigh scattering
b. blues and violets scatter the most in the lower atmosphere
c. the longer the wavelength, the greater the scattering
d. sunlight has more blue than violet wavelengths
9. Wind flowing from cool water to warm land is an example of __.
a. convection     b. orogeny      c. convergence        d. advection
10. Which of the following is a false statement about clouds?
a. High clouds cool the earth
b. Clouds generally moderate the temperature
c. At night, low clouds insulate the earth
d. At any given moment, about 50% of the earth is covered with clouds.         
11. Which of the following is a false statement about deserts?
a. some deserts lie in the rain shadow of mountains
b. some deserts, such as Chili’s coastal desert, are found far away from significant bodies of water
c. a band of deserts are found at 30 degrees north and south latitude
d. as tectonic plates move, the location of deserts also moves
12. Why does water expand below 39 degrees Fahrenheit?
a. because 90% of all liquids expand when they solidify
b. because of hydrogen bonds that form six-sided structures
c. it doesn’t really expand, but has the appearance of doing so because of molecular movement
d. because the oxygen molecules in the water pull oxygen molecules out of the atmosphere
13. In the summertime, you watch the Weather Channel and learn that a mT air mass is moving our way. What kind of weather do you expect?
a. cool and wet        b. warm and dry        c. warm and wet    d. cool and dry
14. The most consistent of all precipitation-inducing lifting mechanisms is:
a. convergent lifting    b. convectional lifting        c. orographic lifting        d. frontal lifting
15. You see the lightning strike and begin counting off the seconds. You count 10 seconds. About how far away was the lightning strike?
a. ¼ mile    b. ½ mile    c. 1 mile    d. 2 miles    e. 5 miles
Fill-in-the-blank: Read the sentences carefully. Select the BEST response from the WORD BANK provided. Write the LETTER CODE on the answer sheet. Two (2) points each.
In physical geography and other sciences, a/an (16)__ is an extensively tested hypothesis. It represents truly broad principles, such as evolution and plate tectonics.
The earth has a living sphere and a non-living sphere. In other words, the earth has a biotic sphere and a/an (17)__ sphere.
Say you created a population map of Kentucky and sized the counties according to how many people live in the county. Fayette and Jefferson counties would be very big on that map. This type of map is called a/an (18)__.
Our Solar System is in the (19)__ Galaxy. This galaxy is disk-shaped and relatively flat and may include as many as 400 billion stars.
On July 4th, the earth is at its furthest point from the sun. This point is called the (20)__.
On the sun, because of the extreme temperature and pressure, hydrogen and helium nuclei are forcibly joined. This is called (21)__.
Clouds of ionized gases are emitted by the sun. These clouds are called the (22)__. The Earth’s magnetic force field deflects these clouds.
During the course of a year, the sun is directly overhead at 23.5 degree North latitude on June 20 or 21st. This is recognized as the first day of summer, the longest day of the year. This day is called the summer (or June) (23)__.
According to prevailing theory, about 4.6 billion years ago, our solar system condensed from a large, slowly rotating, collapsing cloud of dust and gas. This cloud is called a/an (24)__.
Airplanes fly them. Sea navigators use them. A/an (25)__ is an imaginary plane that splits the earth into two equal parts. The Equator and all the lines of longitude are examples.
In the Earth’s homosphere, the blend of gases is relatively uniform. Of these gases, about 78% is (26)__.
Because of one of the earth’s spheres, the (27)__, we are protected from ultraviolet radiation. This sphere has been compromised over the last several decades, as chemicals such as CFCs has been emitted into the environment.
Several decades ago, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency established standards for six criteria pollutants. Criteria pollutants are air pollutants that are found throughout the U.S. and cause harm to human health and the environment. One of these, (28)__, is emitted when fossil fuels are incompletely burned; exposure to this pollutant can cause central nervous system disorders and can even be fatal.
Normal rain is slightly acidic because of the presence of (29)__. Normal rain has a pH of about 5.65.
In the atmosphere, a pollutant associated with the combustion of coal combines with water to form an acid. This pollutant is (30)__. Acid rain, snow, and fog cause extensive damage to forest and lake ecosystems.
If you go skiing in Aspen, you need to be protect yourself against sunburn. The snow reflects back 80-95% of the sun’s energy. This reflective quality of a surface is called the (31)__.
Ozone pollution, or photochemical smog, has plagued Los Angeles for decades. In 1975, the (32)__ was introduced. Because of it, auto emissions have declined significantly.
The (33)__ of 1973 was a big, unwelcome shock for the U.S. and other petroleum-dependent countries. This shock led to an upsurge in solar technologies.
A current in the North Atlantic keeps Great Britain, Iceland, and western Europe warmer than would be expected based upon their latitudes. This great current is called the (34)__.
The temperature at which all atomic and molecular motion in matter completely stops is called (35)__.
Sun light penetrates water to an average depth of 200 feet. This illuminated zone is the (36)__ layer.
The (37)__ is an isoline that connects all points of highest mean temperature.
The (38)__ measures the body’s reaction to a combination of air temperature and water vapor. If the temperature is high, and the relative humidity is high as well, the situation can be dangerous.
Four forces determine the speed and direction of winds. One of these is the (39)__ force, which means that air moves from higher to lower pressure areas.
This is a seasonal wind. In the summer, this wind brings rain to India. In the winter, the wind is dry. This wind is called the (40)__.
Fine, blown in particles are found in the Great Plains and Mid-west U.S. and in eastern China. In China, cave dwellings are carved out of this material. This material is called (41)__.
In the 1930s, desert-like conditions hit the Great Plains. During this period, many farmers left Oklahoma and other plains states for California. This particular event is called the (42)__. Somewhat ironically, North America’s largest groundwater aquifer underlies the Great Plains. It is called the (43)__.
In January, 2005, pictures came back to Earth of a moon of Saturn. On this moon, called (44)__, liquid methane rains down and flows into methane rivers.
Early in Earth’s history, water appeared on the Earth’s surface. The water was formed within the planet and, via a process called (45)__, reached the Earth’s surface.
The (46)__ rates of heating and cooling have to do with temperature change in a parcel of air as it rises or sinks. During this process, heat is not exchanged between the air parcel and the surrounding environment.
As I write this test, the clouds are flat and layered. It is a dreary day. What type of clouds are these? (47)__
When a cold front overtakes a warm front and wedges under it, this is called a/an (48)__ front.
When a tornado touches down over water, water will be drawn up into the funnel. This is called a/an (49)__.
In 1998, the deadliest Atlantic hurricane in 218 years hit Central America. Over 12,000 were killed, not only because of the power of the hurricane but because of prior, massive environmental destruction in the hurricane’s path. This was Hurricane (50)__.

GEO 130: Test #1
February 15, 2005
Key: (1) a (2) a (3) d (4) d (5) c (6) b (7) c (8) c (9) c (10) a (11) b (12) a (13) a (14) c (15) d (16) aa (17) pe (18) id (19) ma (20) lb (21) pb (22) fc (23) sa (24) ed (25) md (26) gb (27) oe (28) ic (29) nb (30) ca (31) sd (32) ad (33) cd (34) oc (35) gc (36) ab (37) pc (38) tb (39) hd (40) cg (41) mc (42) lc (43) dc (44) ob (45) od (46) ac (47) ce (48) oa (49) mb (50) wb
Multiple Choice: Read the questions carefully. Select the BEST response. Two (2) points each.
1. You learned that a system is any ordered, interrelated set of things and their attributes, linked by flows of energy and matter. Within systems, there are often negative feedbacks and positive feedbacks. Which of the following is an example of a positive feedback?
a. One year, there are serious wildfires in the west. In the fall, these stumps are cleared away and adjacent trees are cut down as well. As a result, the forest dries out even more. The next summer, there are even more serious wildfires in the west.
b. A boulder starts tumbling down a hill and smashes into a tree.
c. Too much rain falls, saturates the soil, and kills the plant.
d. With the Montreal Protocol, the CFCs-induced destruction of the ozone molecules is declining.
2. Which of the following maps has the largest scale?
a. a map of Lexington        b. a map of Kentucky        c. a map of the United States       
d. a map of North America
3. The top of the Earth’s atmosphere, about 300 miles up, is called the __.
a. aurora    b. magnetosphere    c. planetesimal break        d. thermopause
4. You are visiting friends in Central America and the sun is directly overhead. This point, the only point, receiving perpendicular solar radiation at a given moment, is called the:
a. insolation    b. solar constant    c. sunspot    d. subsolar point   
5. It’s July 4th, you’re in Kentucky and your friend tells you that the sun is directly overhead. What do you tell your friend?
a. The earth is at its closest point to the sun on this day.
b. The sun will be directly overhead only from noon to 12:23 pm.
c. The sun is never directly overhead in Kentucky
d. On July 4th, the sun is directly overhead at 23.5 degrees North latitude
6. Which of the following is an incorrect statement about Earth’s atmosphere?
a. Most of the mass of the atmosphere as well as water vapor and life forms are in the troposphere
b. In the thermosphere, molecules have a great deal of kinetic energy and so the temperature is very low
c. In the troposphere, the temperature tends to drop about 3.5 degrees F for every 1000 feet in elevation
d. The mesosphere is very cold. In fact, it is the coldest part of the atmosphere.
7. In the San Bernardino Mountains, the trees are dying. Why?
a. Carbon monoxide exposure has effectively shut down photosynthesis in the forest
b. Acid rain is killing these forests, just as these pollutants are killing temperate forests around the world
c. Ozone exposure has weakened the trees, allowing other agents (such as the bark beetle) to kill them
d. Copper arsenate is the primary culprit
8. Which of the following is not part of the explanation of why the sky is blue?
a. the sky is blue because of Rayleigh scattering
b. blues and violets scatter the most in the lower atmosphere
c. the longer the wavelength, the greater the scattering
d. sunlight has more blue than violet wavelengths
9. You visit Manitoba and read the weather forecast. You learn that tomorrow’s high will be 10 degrees Celsius. Converting Celsius to Fahrenheit, you find that tomorrow’s high should be __ degrees F.
a. 0        b. 25        c. 50        d. 75
10. Year-round temperatures in Victoria, British Columbia are moderate. Temperatures are moderated because Victoria is near the ocean. This phenomenon is called the:
a. marine effect        b. albedo effect        c. continental effect    d. isothermal effect         
11. Which of the following is a false statement about deserts?
a. some deserts lie in the rain shadow of mountains
b. some deserts, such as Chili’s coastal desert, are found far away from significant bodies of water
c. a band of deserts are found at 30 degrees north and south latitude
d. as tectonic plates move, the location of deserts also moves
12. Which of the following is not a force behind ocean currents?
a. seismic waves
b. the coriolis force
c. frictional drag of winds
d. configuration of the continents and ocean floor
13. If you wanted to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 40 to 41 degrees Celsium, how much energy would be necessary?
a. 1 calorie    b. 80 calories        c. 100 calories        d. 540 calories        e. 720 calories
14. In the summertime, you watch the Weather Channel and learn that a mT air mass is moving our way. What kind of weather do you expect?
a. cool and wet        b. warm and dry        c. warm and wet        d. cool and dry
15. You see the lightning strike and begin counting off the seconds. You count 10 seconds. About how far away was the lightning strike?
a. ¼ mile    b. ½ mile    c. 1 mile    d. 2 miles    e. 5 miles
Fill-in-the-blank: Read the sentences carefully. Select the BEST response from the WORD BANK provided. Write the LETTER CODE on the answer sheet. Two (2) points each.
The earth has a living sphere and a non-living sphere. In other words, the earth has a biotic sphere and a/an (16)__ sphere.
The lines of longitude are called meridians. Zero degrees runs through Greenwich, England and is called the (17)__.
You want to go for a strenuous hike, so you pick up a map from the Kentucky Geological Survey. This map has a bunch of curving lines. You see that one line represents all the places that are 1000 feet above sea level. Another line represents places at 1200 feet of elevation, and so on. This type of map is called a/an (18)__.
Our Solar System is in the (19)__ Galaxy. This galaxy is disk-shaped and relatively flat and may include as many as 400 billion stars.
Light travels 5.9 trillion miles per year. This distance is known as a/an (20)__.
On January 3rd, the earth is at its closest point to the sun. This point is called the (21)__.
On the sun, because of the extreme temperature and pressure, hydrogen and helium nuclei are forcibly joined. This is called (22)__.
Clouds of ionized gases are emitted by the sun. These clouds are called the (23)__. The Earth’s magnetic force field deflects these clouds.
Twice a year, the sun is directly overhead on the Equator. On these two days, day and night are of equal length. These days are the vernal and autumnal (24)__.
According to prevailing theory, about 4.6 billion years ago, our solar system condensed from a large, slowly rotating, collapsing cloud of dust and gas. This cloud is called a/an (25)__.
Airplanes fly them. Sea navigators use them. A/an (26)__ is an imaginary plane that splits the earth into two equal parts. The Equator and all the lines of longitude are examples.
In the Earth’s homosphere, the blend of gases is relatively uniform. Of these gases, about 21% is (27)__.
One of earth’s spheres, called the (28)__, protects earth by absorbing cosmic, gamma, and x-rays.
Several decades ago, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency established standards for six criteria pollutants. Criteria pollutants are air pollutants that are found throughout the U.S. and cause harm to human health and the environment. One of these, (29)__, is emitted when fossil fuels are burned at very high temperatures. Exposure to this pollutant is associated with respiratory problems.
Normal rain is slightly acidic because of the presence of (30)__. Normal rain has a pH of about 5.65.
In the atmosphere, a pollutant associated with the combustion of coal combines with water to form an acid. This pollutant is (31)__. Acid rain, snow, and fog cause extensive damage to forest and lake ecosystems.
If you go skiing in Aspen, you need to be protect yourself against sunburn. The snow reflects back 80-95% of the sun’s energy. This reflective quality of a surface is called the (32)__.
Ozone pollution, or photochemical smog, has plagued Los Angeles for decades. In 1975, the (33)__ was introduced. Because of it, auto emissions have declined significantly.
The (34)__ of 1973 was a big, unwelcome shock for the U.S. and other petroleum-dependent countries. This shock led to an upsurge in solar technologies.
A current in the North Atlantic keeps Great Britain, Iceland, and western Europe warmer than would be expected based upon their latitudes. This great current is called the (35)__.
The temperature at which all atomic and molecular motion in matter completely stops is called (36)__.
Sun light penetrates water to an average depth of 200 feet. This illuminated zone is the (37)__ layer.
The (38)__ is an isoline that connects all points of highest mean temperature.
The (39)__ measures the body’s reaction to a combination of air temperature and water vapor. If the temperature is high, and the relative humidity is high as well, the situation can be dangerous.
Four forces determine the speed and direction of winds. One of these is the (40)__ force, which means that wind traveling in a straight path appears to be deflected. This apparent deflection is because of the tilt of the earth on its axis.
This is a seasonal wind. In the summer, this wind brings rain to India. In the winter, the wind is dry. This wind is called the (41)__.
Fine, blown in particles are found in the Great Plains and Mid-west U.S. and in eastern China. In China, cave dwellings are carved out of this material. This material is called (42)__.
In the 1930s, desert-like conditions hit the Great Plains. During this period, many farmers left Oklahoma and other plains states for California. This particular event is called the (43)__. Somewhat ironically, North America’s largest groundwater aquifer underlies the Great Plains. It is called the (44)__.
Early in Earth’s history, water appeared on the Earth’s surface. The water was formed within the planet and, via a process called (45)__, reached the Earth’s surface.
The (46)__ rates of heating and cooling have to do with temperature change in a parcel of air as it rises or sinks. During this process, heat is not exchanged between the air parcel and the surrounding environment.
On Saturday, it was a beautiful day. Many of the clouds were wispy, composed of ice crystals, and quite high. What type of clouds are these? (47)__
When a cold front overtakes a warm front and wedges under it, this is called a/an (48)__ front.
In 1998, the deadliest Atlantic hurricane in 218 years hit Central America. Over 12,000 were killed, not only because of the power of the hurricane but because of prior, massive environmental destruction in the hurricane’s path. This was Hurricane (49)__.
When a tornado touches down over water, water will be drawn up into the funnel. This is called a/an (50)__.
Word Bank:
(aa) Abiotic (ab) Absolute zero (ac) Adiabatic (ad) Albedo (ae) Albert (af) Aphelion (ag) Atmosphere (ba) Biotic
(ca) Carbon dioxide (cb) Carbon monoxide (cc) Cartogram (cd) Catalytic converter (ce) Cirroform (cf) Cold
(cg) Coriolis (ch) Cumuliform (da) Declination (db) Dot (dc) Dust Bowl (ea) Ecological fallacy (eb) Environmental lapse (ec) Equator (ed) Equinox (fa) Fission (fb) Friction (fc) Fusion (ga) Gravity (gb) Great circle (gc) Gulf Stream
(ha) Helium (hb) Hydrogen (hc) Hypothesis (hd) heat index (ia) Insolation (ib) International dateline (ic) Ionosphere
(id) Isoline (ja) Jet stream (la) Lead (lb) Light year (lc) Loess (ma) Milky Way (mb) Mitch (mc) Monsoon (md) Nebula (na) Nitrogen (nb) Nitrogen oxide (nc) Normal lapse (oa) Occluded (ob) Ogallala (oc) Oil embargo
(od) Outgassing (oe) Oxygen (of) Ozonosphere (pa) Particulates (pb) Perihelion (pc) Photic (pd) Pressure gradient
(pe) Prime meridian (sa) Solar wind (sb) Solstice (sc) Stratiform (sd) Sulfur oxide (ta) Theory (tb) Thermal equator
(tc) Titan (wa) Warm (wb) Waterspout

February 17: Chapter 9

Aquiclude – a body of rock that does not conduct groundwater in usable amounts; an impermeable rock layer, related to an aquitard that slows but does not block water flow

Aquifer – a body of rock that conducts groundwater in usable amounts; a permeable layer of rock

Artesian water – pressurized groundwater that rises in a well or a rock structure above the local water table; may flow out onto the ground without pumping

Capillary water – soil moisture, most of which is accessible to plant roots; held in the soil by the water’s surface tension and cohesive forces between water and soil

Consumptive use – a use that removes water from a water budget at one point and makes it unavailable further downstream

Drawdown – water table goes down as water is drawn

Evapo-transpiration – the movement of free water molecules away from a wet surface into air that is less than saturated; the phase change of water to water vapor + the movement of water vapor out through the pores in leaves; the water is drawn by the plant roots from soil moisture storage

Groundwater – water beneath the surface that is beyond the soil-root zone; a major source of potable water

Groundwater mining – pumping an aquifer beyond its capacity to flow and recharge; an overuse of the ground resource

Hydrologic cycle – a simplified model of the flow of water, ice and water vapor from place to place. Water flows through the atmosphere, across the land, where it is also stored as ice, and within groundwater. Solar energy empowers the cycle.

Hygroscopic water – that portion of soil moisture that is so tightly bound to each soil particle that it is unavailable to plant roots; the water, along with some bound capillary water, that is left in the soil after the wilting point is reached

Infiltration – water access to subsurface regions of soil moisture storage through penetration of the soil surface

Percolation – the process by which water permeates the soil or porous rock into the subsurface environment

Permeability – the ability of water to flow through soil or rock; a function of the texture and structure of the medium

Porosity – the total volume of available pore space in soil; a result of the texture and structure of the soil

POTET – (potential evapotranspiration) the amount of moisture that would evaporate and transpire if adequate moisture were available; it is the amount lost under optimum moisture conditions, the moisture demand

Precipitation – rain, snow, sleet, and hail – the moisture supply

Total runoff – surplus water that flows across a surface toward stream channels; formed by sheet flow, combined with precipitation and subsurface flows into those channels

Transpiration – the movement of water vapor out through the pores in leaves; the water is drawn by the plant roots from soil moisture storage

Water table – the upper surface of groundwater; that contact point between the zone of saturation and aeration in an unconfined aquifer

Wars may be fought over water this century. The textbook makes the point that water deficiency in Middle East is an important issue. For example, among the Israelis and Palestinians, water is a source of conflict.

•    97% of water is in oceans
•    evaporation: 86% from ocean and 14% from  land
•    precipitation: 78% onto ocean and 22% onto land

•    When precipitation falls on the land: interception – strikes vegetation or other groundcover or throughfall – falls directly to the ground. In terms of keeping soil in place, interception is much preferred.

•    On land, water may run off or it may seep into the ground: the moisture that's available to plants is capillary water, while the water tightly bound to soil particles and not available to plants is hygroscopic water. The wilting point occurs when plants aren’t able to extract water from the soil.

•    Groundwater is underground water: aquifer is a key term. Kentucky's karst topography = limestone bedrock with sinkholes, underground streams, caverns. Kentucky's groundwater is easy to pollute, but no soil is very effective against viruses, synthetic compounds, and even organic compounds. Groundwater is slow-moving, low in oxygen. Half of U.S. citizens depend upon underground water for some/all drinking water. The sources of pollution include landfills, mining, improperly applied/stored chemicals (deicers), pesticides, LUST (leaking underground storage tanks), septic tanks
In US, nitrates are a problem in groundwater in 43 states, pesticides in 36 states, VOC (volatile organic compounds) in 36 states, and petroleum products in 34 states.

•    High plains aquifer – Ogallala is North America’s largest source of underground water: 174,000 square miles; layer of clay under it – 245 million years old; took 60,000 years to fill; overlies the area that became the Dust Bowl in the 1930s; starting in the 1950s, blossomed – wheat, corn, alfalfa, grain sorghum, soybeans, cattle because 150,000 wells were drilled into the Ogallala. By 2020, if water use continues at the present rate, a 23% drop in general is expected.

Students watched a film on groundwater. A professor from Occidental College begins by telling viewers that forked sticks have been used to douse for water. The idea was if the stick pointed down, there was water below. He said that, actually, there is underground water almost everywhere. Half the U.S. population depends on groundwater for their drinking water. There is 50 times as much water underground as in all the world's rivers, streams, and other freshwater sources. The water is filtered as it percolates down, and (at least historically) has tended to be less polluted than surface water. Now, pollution is a problem. When it rains, the water seeps into the ground and even seeps through basalt or granite, as rocks usually have cracks (fissures). For water to collect as groundwater, need permeability (capacity to transmit water) and porosity (capacity to store water). Clay tends to exclude water passage; water makes clay swell. Because of the presence of carbon dioxide in the air, rain is a bit acidic (carbonic acid). Thus, in some places we have cave formation. Stalactites (ceiling) and stalagmites (floor) form from deposits of calcium carbonate in water droplets. Groundwater feeds springs. In the ground, the top of the saturated zone is called the water table. On flat land, the water table is flat, but on hilly land, the water table undulates. Usually, groundwater must be pumped up, against gravity; however, sometimes, the pressure in the water rises to the point that the water comes up without pumping (these are artesian wells). So, an open aquifer (low pressure) must be pumped, but a closed aquifer (an aquiclude) does not have to be pumped. In Orange County, California, 2 million people depend on a groundwater supply of 10-30 million acre feet. This groundwater system is greater than the groundwater systems for the rest of California combined. Before settlement, this area was a virtual desert and now there is a perennial river. The water district actually recharges the groundwater. If a lot of groundwater is taken out and not replaced, subsidence can occur. In Houston, Texas, over 40 years, the land subsided 3 meters. One suburb had to be abandoned. In Italy, the Tower of Pisa was leaning because of groundwater withdrawal. Sometimes, the result is the creation of sinkholes. For coastal cities, another big problem with drawing out too much groundwater is called saltwater intrusion. Because freshwater is less dense than saltwater, it will lie on top of it. But if the freshwater is drawn down too much, the saltwater will take its place. The water supply is then polluted and is toxic to agriculture. Groundwater can also be polluted by factories, farms, landfills, septic tanks, and radioactive wastes. Today, landfills are more environmentally sound as they are required to be constructed with a layer of impermeable clay followed by a thick plastic sheet, sand, and pipes to drain off the leachate and methane. At some landfills, methane gas is collected, cleaned, and burned for electricity. While much attention is given to petroleum resources, relatively little attention is focused on water. Groundwater is being drawn down rapidly. Unlike petroleum, water is essential for life. Back in Orange County, the water district works to maintain the groundwater quality by using injection wells to act as a barrier against saltwater. Industrial pollutants (solvents, heavy metals, etc.) cannot be discharged. The water quality is monitored above and below. The county has 1500 monitoring wells. They don't wait for the state of California or EPA to come in; by that time, it's too late. Overall, groundwater is in jeopardy because of growing demand for water, wasteful use of water, and pollution.

Review: Matching
(1) aquiclude   (2) aquifer   (3) artesian water   (4) capillary water
(5) consumptive use   (6) drawdown   (7) groundwater
(8) groundwater mining   (9) hydrologic cycle   (10) hygroscopic water
(11) infiltration   (12) percolation   (13) permeability   (14) porosity
(15) POTET   (16) precipitation   (17) total runoff   (18) transpiration
(19) water table

_____: Rain, snow, sleet, and hail; in other words, the moisture supply.
_____: The total volume of available pore space in soil; a result of the texture and structure of the soil.
_____: The ability of water to flow through soil or rock; a function of the texture and structure of the medium.
_____: A body of rock that conducts groundwater in usable amounts; a permeable layer of rock.
_____: Pressurized groundwater that rises in a well or a rock structure above the local water table; may flow out onto the ground without pumping.
_____: A use that removes water from a water budget at one point and makes it unavailable further downstream.
_____: Water beneath the surface that is beyond the soil-root zone; a major source of potable water.
_____: The process by which water permeates the soil or porous rock into the subsurface environment
_____: A simplified model of the flow of water, ice and water vapor from place to place. Water flows through the atmosphere, across the land, where it is also stored as ice, and within groundwater. Solar energy empowers the cycle.
_____: A body of rock that does not conduct groundwater in usable amounts; an impermeable rock layer.
_____: The upper surface of groundwater; that contact point between the zone of saturation and aeration in an unconfined aquifer.
_____: The groundwater does down as the water continues to be pulled out.
_____: Pumping an aquifer beyond its capacity to flow and recharge; an overuse of the ground resource.

February 22: Chapter 10

The Koppen Climate Classification System

A (humid equatorial) + f (no dry season -- tropical rainforest) or w (dry winter -- savanna) or m (short dry -- monsoon)

B (dry) + S (steppe, semiarid) or W (arid, less than 10" precipitation per year) + h (hot) or k (cold)

C (humid temperate) + f (no dry season) or w (dry winter) or s (dry summer -- Mediterranean) + a (hot summer) or b (cool summer) or c (short, cool summer) or d (very cold winter)

D (humid continental) + f (no dry season) or w (dry winter)  + a (hot summer) or b (cool summer) or c (short, cool summer) or d (very cold winter)

E (cold polar) + F (ice cap) or T (tundra) or M (marine)

H (undifferentiated highland)

Students watched a new film (2004) entitled Global Climate Regions. The ancient Greeks (5th century BC) had an early climate classification system that included the frigid zone, a temperate zone (where the Greeks lived), and a torrid (hot) zone. Weather is the observationable day-to-day condition, while climate is a composite of weather. The Koppen climate classification system is widely used. Beginning at the Equator, one finds the humid tropics. It is always hot and moist, with almost no difference in temperatures throughout the year. This is an area of low pressure, convectional showers, cumulus clouds that turn into thunderheads, evergreen rainforests, wetlands in low areas, lots of species, great rivers like the Amazon, and poor soils (the rain leaches the nutrients out of the soil; soil quickly loses its fertility after logging). The monsoon tropics apply to tropical climates with seasonal winds (e.g., South Asia). A hot, dry season lasts at least one month; there are heavy summer rains, and more deciduous trees than in humid tropics. The wet-dry tropics are marked by winter dry (low sun), seasonal shift of high pressure, rainy (high sun), deciduous forests that transition to evergreens, savanna (common in Africa), and in the driest areas, thickets of thorny trees and even cactus. The world's arid lands cover 30% of the land area of Earth. They include steppes (semi-arid) and deserts (very arid). The subtropical deserts are usually on the west side of continents but the Sahara Desert stretches across the length of Africa. These places are very hot and dry, with months of no precipitation followed by short periods of intense rains; the vegetation is sparse, sand dunes and small stones are common, vegetation is abundant only at the occasional oasis (where the water table is at ground level) and a few exotic rivers. The subtropical steppe has seasonal rains, is less hot, has periods of vegetative bloom at the end of the rainy period, and is found on the margins of deserts. The midlatitude drylands include the the rain shadows of the Sierra Nevadas and the Himalayas. One also finds these dry lands deep in continental interiors. There is little vegetation. The wetter parts have grasses and other low-lying vegetation, and are sometimes called prairie lands. The humid midlatitudes are most abundant in the northern hemisphere; there are recognizable seasons. The humid subtropics have long, hot summers; thunderstorms; the heaviest precipitation is in the summer; the winters tend to be mild; snow is rare at low elevations; forests once covered most of these areas, most of which are flat to gently rolling; today, much of this land is under cultivation. The summer dry subtropics are called Mediterranean; rain during the mild winters; snow in higher elevations; drought-resistant shrubs and small trees have been largely replaced by olive groves, vineyards, and other agricultural enterprises. The marine west coast climate includes mild summers, rain anytime, overcast winters; downpours at low elevations and at higher elevations, some of the world's heaviest snowfalls; green in all seasons; ideal for evergreen forest growth; and is most extensive in northwestern Europe because of vast areas without mountains; this climate type is limited in North America because of mountains. Humid continental climates are remote from oceans; found 40-50 degrees north, include very distinct seasons; colorful deciduous trees; the winter precipitation is snow; many of the forests have been converted to agricultural use. The subarctic is found at 50-70 degrees north latitude; these are places of great extremes; the summers are short and usually mild; the winters are long with temperatures below 0 degrees Fahrenheit; one finds coniferous (boreal) forests here; relatively few species; in the summer, the days are very long but in the winter, the days are quite short; even though annual precipitation is less than 20", many areas are waterlogged (cold, humid air). The polar regions are the harshest, furthest away from the sun (and from the equator). Antarctica is an example. These areas are hostile to most species. In parts of Iceland, Greenland, and Russia, the summers are very short; during no month is the average temperature over 50 degrees Fahrenheit; the winters are long, dark, and cold; there is little precipitation because the air is so cold. As one approaches the tundra, a transition zone of stunted trees is encountered. In the tundra, one finds ground-hugging vegetation. The ice sheets are the harshest environments on earth, with the warmest month below freezing. The highlands are complex mountain regions, with climatic/vegetative changes over short distances. The temperature decreases correspond to a journey from the Equator to the Polar regions.

Review (1) Looking at the Americas, where is the closest tropical savanna climate to the U.S.? __ (2) In what African country does one find the largest expanse of tropical rainforest? __ (3) While it may be a small area, the southeastern corner of each continent has a Cfa climate. Thus, we in Kentucky share the same climate type with another country that is almost exactly the same size (territory-wise) as the U.S. This is the country of __ (4) The interior of Australia is called the Outback, or Bush. What is the climate classification? __ (5) Siberia and northern Canada have the same climate type, a Dfc. What are the characteristics of this climate type?__ (6) What kind of climate do Mexicans encounter at the border between the U.S. and Mexico? __ (7) If you visited the eastern coast of Madagascar (the island off the east coast of Africa), what type of climate would you encounter?__ (8) If you wanted to visit Italy when it was least likely to rain, when would you visit? __ (9) Climate-wise, what would you expect to find in Tibet (southwestern China)? __ (10) What kind of climate would you encounter in eastern Iraq? __ In western Iraq? __(11) If you visited northern Iceland, you would find snow 8 to 10 months out of the year. What climate type does northern Iceland have?__

February 24: Chapter 10

To illustrate just how long we have known about the dangers of global warming, I showed a 1989 NOVA special entitled "Hot Enough for You?" It began with discussion of the 1988 drought, during which we experienced a 1 degree (Celsius) warming. Fifty years from now, the global temperatures could be 3-4 degrees C warmer. Carbon dioxide is the most important chemical implicated in this change. Carbon dioxide is part of the "blanket" that warms our earth; without it, the earth's temperature would be 40 degrees but, with it, the earth is a comfortable 59 degrees. Carbon dioxide is circulated via the carbon cycle. Humans and other animals breathe in oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. Half the carbon goes into the top layers of the ocean. Plants take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. When the plants decay, some of the carbon in their tissues is given off as carbon dioxide. Other carbon stays in the soil. From ice cores, we know that prior to the Industrial Revolution, the earth's atmosphere had 280 ppm of carbon dioxide. This concentration is now rapidly increasing. In fact, at the observatory in Hawaii, monitoring shows that
carbon dioxide concentrations have risen from 315 ppm in 1958 to over 340 ppm in 1989. The temperature rose 1 degree Fahrenheit from 1900 to 1989. The natural variability is still larger than climate change, so we can't say any one hot year is because of global warming, nor can we say that any one cold year disproves global warming. We have to look at the overall temperatures over many years. At the global level, natural variability is low and observations have shown that temperatures have been increasing. Actually, the earth should be getting a bit cooler, as a result of volcanic eruptions and slightly lower radiance from the sun. An excess of carbon dioxide, a product of the Industrial Revolution, comes from burning fossil fuels. In this way, 18 billion tons of carbon dioxide are added to the atmosphere each year. Cattle and rice paddies generate methane, another powerful global warmer. CFCs (used as a coolant and solvent but NOT as a propellant) and NOX (from hot combustion) are other global warmers. The emissions of carbon dioxide are expected to double in the next 50 years. Figuring out the effect of global warming is a terribly complex problem. Computer models (called global circulation models) have been created at Princeton University and other universities. The earth is marked off in grids and, after figuring in the dynamics of air, water, and temperature, carbon dioxide is added to see what happens. As carbon dioxide levels increase, temperature rises. The Department of Energy is looking at these different models. On a global level, their results are very similar. The differences come at the small scale. One of the biggest problems is clouds. There are many types of clouds. The mid-level ones cool the earth; it is theorized that they may decline. The higher, cirrus cloud, can add to global warming; it is hypothesized that they may rise even higher and thus be even more of a factor in global warming. Field studies have demonstrated that, in warmer environments, there are more clouds in the sky. Scientists fly into clouds to note the radiation, the heat differential, the ice crystal behavior, etc. Even after all the effort, clouds are still very
difficult to deal with. The oceans pose yet another question. Only half the carbon dioxide emitted by fossil fuel combustion is in the atmosphere. Is the rest in the ocean? Probably so, where various forms of life use the carbon and where ocean water absorbs it as calcium carbonate. So, 40% of the carbon dioxide may be in the water and, if we quit generating so much, some speculate that the oceans might be able to eventually absorb up to 85% of the excess carbon dioxide. However, we don't know the ultimate capacity of the oceans as a carbon dioxide sink. Most do agree that the effects of global warming will be uneven. The most warming is likely to be in the polar north, especially in the winter. One scientist argued that this warming might actually be beneficial to northern Canada and the former USSR (he would probably have a different opinion about that now). He suggested that parts of North America would become rainier and other areas would become drier. The rain is shifting to the north. We saw the Sahel, which is the semi-arid band to the south of the Sahara Desert, and learned about the serious drought of 1973. It appears to be part of a changing pattern of wet-dry. We saw starving cattle, the result of India's 1987 failed monsoon. The monsoon does fail periodically, but if this phenomenon begins to occur regularly, there will be a big problem. During the monsoon, the moisture-laden winds blow over the Indian landmass from the ocean. The warm land causes the air currents to rise and to condense as rain. The ocean is also warm, but so long as it stays below 28 degrees Centigrade, the rains will fall over the land. Above that threshold temperature, the oceans will successfully compete for the water. By 2050, the oceans could rise by up to 5 feet. In the technologically advanced countries, this rising sea level can be dealt with (for example in Florida). The major concern is in the Third World. For example, in Bangladesh, the shallow water in the Ganges delta can be easily moved by the winds. Thousands already die when these waves of water inundate the delta.The surges along this uneven coast line could become much more powerful in the future. We then turned to the question of how elevated CO2 levels will affect plants. At Duke University, scientists are trying, in greenhouses, to mimic the complications of the real world. They have found that some plants thrive under conditions of elevated CO2; these plants are called C3. Those plants with a smaller (or no) response to the CO2 are called C4; included are corn, sorghum, and a number of other food crops. It was a surprise to find that increased CO2 changes tissue, but not for the better. Experiments at Duke demonstrated that the tissue (i.e., leaves) became less nutritious, so insects ate more. The scientists had expected more defense compounds to be produced, but they weren't. At Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, studies have shown that sweet potatoes grown under conditions of enhanced CO2 have less protein. We then went to Chesapeake Bay, where field studies using salt marsh grasses are underway. To stabilize the environment, CO2 emissions need to be reduced by 50% (as of 1989). What is the alternative? Nuclear power produces 75% of the electricity in France, eliminating 120 million tons of CO2 in 1988. Sweden gets half its electricity from nuclear; however, the Sweds have already voted to phase it out. In the United States, nuclear energy is not popular. In 1950, it was embraced as a cheap, plentiful miracle. Now, the reception is chilly. The $5.8 billion Shoreham plant in New York may never go on line because of safety concerns. The Seabrook, NH plant is $3 billion over budget, and the fight continues, again over safety issues. Since 1978, no new nuclear plants have been ordered. Even if the problems of nuclear power could be overcome (e.g., nuclear waste disposal) and all of our electricity was generated by nuclear power, only 14% of  the greenhouses gases would be eliminated. Some think that a new generation (more cost effective, safer) of  nuclear power may be possible. Another option is to use conventional power more efficiently. In a Swedish city
of 100,000, waste heat warms the homes. The combination of heat and power has an efficiency of up to 40%.
One scientist, at Brookhaven in New York, suggested that trees be planted to offset the CO2 emissions. For a
1000 megawatt plant, 250,000 acres of trees would be planted. Of course, in reality, the forests (outside North
America and Europe) are disappearing. At Woods Hole, MA, we saw satellite images of Rondonia, which is in
the Amazon (the world's largest tropical rainforest). Over the past 15 years, Rondonia has experienced major
deforestation. The land is usually cleared by burning. Estimates put the clearing at about 27 million acres each
year globally. As the developing world seeks to improve the quality of life of its citizens, the CO2 emissions will
rise. In 1950, 1.5% of CO2 was emitted by China. By 1987, China was emitting over 10% of the world total.
China's economic goal was to triple its GNP by 2000. The developing world, by 2020-2030 may collectively be
generating 50% of the world's energy. To avoid increasing CO2, development must move along a different
path. Finally, we learned a little bit about international environmental treaties. In September of 1987, the UN
Environment Programme facilitated the adoption of the Montreal Protocol. The Montreal Protocol is aimed at
reducing the chemicals that deplete the ozone layer. CFCs, an ozone depleting gas, are also global warmers.
The success of the Montreal Protocol will reduce the presence of this one gas in the atmosphere, but the
elimination of the excess 18 billion tons/year of CO2 is a much greater challenge. In terms of policy, decision
makers must be provided with better information about global warming. The models must be improved. The
CO2 enhancement of the atmosphere is a global experiment that would never be permitted, except that CO2 is
the result of economic "progress".

Follow-up: In November 1988, 60+ countries agreed to bring together the world's leading climatologists, biologists, etc. to study the issue of global warming. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), with 2500 scientists from 130 countries, was convened. This panel, sponsored by the UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), issued reports in 1990, 1992, 1995, and 2001, and 2005; each more urgent with regard to the phenomenon of global warming. In 1991, the US National Academy of Sciences concurred that there is clear evidence of global warming and recommended immediate reduction of the gases causing global warming. At the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio Janeiro, the Framework Convention on Climate Change was adopted. Its stated objective was the stabilization of human-caused global warming gases. The US signed (6-12-92) and ratified (10-15-92) this convention. In December 1997, representatives from countries around the world got together in Kyoto, Japan to negotiate implementation of the Framework convention. The result was widely criticized because it wouldn't stop the problem. Developed countries were asked to reduce global warming gas emissions 5-7% below their 1990 emissions (by 2008-2010) and developing countries were asked to come on board later. While the U.S. signed the Kyoto agreement, we later "unsigned" it (it is almost unheard of to unsign an international agreement). The agreement languished for awhile, as countries with at least 55% of the global warming emissions had to ratify in order for the agreement to take effect. While the U.S. has 5% of the world's population and generates 25% of the global warming gases, we did not sign or ratify. Finally, Russia ratified the agreement. With 140 or so countries on board, Kyoto took effect on February 15, 2005. It will not solve the problem, but it is a first step. We can, and must, move away from a fossil-fuel based economy.

In-class review: (1)Normally, we expect some carbon dioxide to rise into the atmosphere and “blanket” our planet. Under normal conditions, about half of the CO2 is sequestered by plants. Where does the other half go?__ (2) For 1000s of years (up until the 1800s), CO2 levels in the atmosphere never rose above __ ppm. Along with the rise in CO2 levels, the global temperature had risen __ degree(s) Fahrenheit by 1989. This reality is in spite of the fact that we would expect the earth to be in a cooling cycle at present. (3) The summer of 1988 was quite hot. Why can we not say with certainty that this hot summer “proves” global warming is real?__ (4) The single most important contributor (think event, not gas) to climate change was the __. Even today, most of the CO2 is emitted from the industrialized countries. (5) In addition to CO2, there are other gases that contribute to global warming. __ is generated by cattle and by the bacteria in rice paddies __, most associated with stratospheric ozone depletion, is also a global warming gas. __, a criteria pollutant that also combines with water to fall as acid rain, is another global warming gas. (6) The video pointed out some of the complexities of modeling the earth’s climate system. One of the complex factors has to do with the presence of __. It appears that, as with the presence of CO2, more of these are associated with a warmer climate. Another source of uncertainty has to do with the __; for example, if a threshold temperature of 28 degrees C is breached, the monsoon rains may not fall on the Indian landmass. Bangladesh may be particularly hard hit by the effects of global warming. How/why?__ (8) CO2 does not affect all plants the same. Some plants, known as __, thrive under enhanced CO2; others, called the __ have a smaller (or no) response. Corn and sorghum are in this latter category. A CO2 enhanced environment changes plant tissue. What is the significance of this finding?__ (10) In the Amazon basin, one finds the world’s largest rainforest. As illustrated in the video, over the past 15 years, huge areas have been deforested. The deforested area shown was in the Brazilian state of __. (11) In 1950, the country of __ produced 1.5% of the world’s CO2. On the road to economic growth, CO2 emissions have increased significantly. By 1987, this country was emitting 10% of the world’s CO2. (12) In September 1987, a treaty moved along by the UN Environment Programme was signed.This treaty, called the __, was aimed at eliminating the chemicals responsible for stratospheric ozone depletion.

March 1: Chapter 11

On the geological time scale on page 324:
- 88% geologic time in Precambrian eon – getting ready for life
- Holocene – current epoch (notice that the largest divisions are eras, next the period, and next the epoch; so we are currently in the Cenozoic era, the Quaternary period, and the Holocene epoch)
- 6 major extinctions (440, 370, 250, 210, and 65 million years ago, and now)
- the oldest mountains listed are the Appalachians (248-290 million years ago) and the youngest are the Himalayas
- the oldest rock found so far is between 4.2 and 4.4 billion years old – in western Australia

When scientists study rocks and fossils to place these dates, they are working on a fundamental principle of Earth science called uniformitarianism – assumes that the same physical processes active in the envr today have been operating throughout geologic time.

So far, been talking mostly about exogenic system (external processes – powered by solar energy). Now turning to endogenic system (internal processes – produce flows of heat and material from deep below Earth’s crust).

When nebula of dust, gas, icy comets condensed and congealed about 4.6 billion years ago: heavier substances (e.g., iron) gravitated to center and lighter elements (e.g., silica) welled upward.

Today, the earth's inner core is solid iron and, while well above the melting temperature of iron at the surface, it remains solid because of tremendous pressure. The outer core is molten, metallic iron w/ lighter density than inner core; this fluid outer core generates 90%+ of Earth’s magnetic field and the magnetosphere that surrounds and protects Earth from the solar wind; this magnetic field reverses once about every 500,000 years – we don’t know why and it appears that reversals are occurring more frequently; as the reversal occurs, there’s a transition period w/o magnetic field – so unprotected from cosmic radiation and solar wind. The mantle makes up 80% of Earth’s total volume; rich in oxides of iron and magnesium and silicates; gradual temperature increase w/ depth. The asthenosphere (plastic layer) least rigid region of the mantle; its slow movement creates tectonic activity (and, conversely) the crust apparently influences currents throughout the mantle. We talked about the lithosphere before; it extends from the surface to about 43 miles down. The uppermost mantle and the crust includes the continental crust – granite (crystalline and high in silica, aluminum, potassium, calcium, sodium) and oceanic crust – basalt (granular and high in silica, magnesium, and iron).

Isostasy - entire crust in constant state of compensating adjustment (or isostasy) slowing rising and sinking in response to its own burdens, as it is pushed and dragged about by currents in the asthenosphere, e.g., parts of earth still rising after end of Ice Age.

Geologic cycle --- while endogenic systems are building landforms, the exogenic system is busily wearing them down, therefore, the following cycles interface: hydrologic cycle – water, rock cycle, and tectonic cycle.

The rock cycle: 75% of earth’s crust is made up of oxygen and silicon.
Minerals: inorganic (nonliving) natural compound having a specific chemical formula and a crystalline structure. There are 4200 minerals, 30 most common. The most widespread are silicates – quartz, feldspar, clay minerals, some gemstones; oxides – hematite; and sulfides and sulfates – pyrite, anhydrite.

Rock can be: assemblage of minerals bound together, mass of a single mineral, undifferentiated material, or solid organic material (e.g., coal). The types of rocks: (1) igneous (like ignite) - 90% of earth’s crust; solidifies and crystallizes from a molten state; granite, basalt and when cools quickly, obsidian; pumice (also glassy) forms when escaping gases bubble a frothy texture into lava; form from magma; intrudes into crustal rock, cools, and hardens (when cooled, forms a pluton -- the biggest pluton [> 40 square miles] are called batholiths) and extrudes onto the surface as lava. (2) sedimentary rock; rock weathered, then moved by erosion, wind, water; processes of cementation, compaction, hardening; sandstone, shale (mud that compacted into rock), limestone – most common (bones and shells), coal (ancient plant material); cemented together with lime, iron oxide, silica, also drying, heating, chemical reactions. (3) metamorphic rock (change); physical or chemical changes – pressure, increased temperature; generally more compact – therefore harder, more resistant to weathering; for example, basalt's metamorphic state is schist, for granite it's gneiss, for limestone it's marble.

In 1912,  Wegener hypothesized continental drift. About 225 million years, the continents were grouped together in what is called Pangaea; at that time, the Appalachians and Atlas mountains straddled the Equator; from that period of lush vegetation and warmth, we now have coal deposits.The theory that developed is called plate tectonics. There 14+ plates. At plate boundaries, tectonic activity – earthquakes, volcanoes. Of these active areas, the boundary of the Pacific Ocean is the most active; it is called the Circum-Pacific Belt or the Ring of Fire. Hot spots occur when magma breaks through weak spots in the crust. The Hawaiin chain is the most famous. The islands to the north are oldest); the newest is Loihi - it is still a seamount (meaning that the land mass has not yet broken the surface of the water). Iceland has almost constant volcanic eruptions; the reason is that Iceland lies on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where sea-floor spreading is occurring. The youngest crust on Earth is at spreading centers of mid-ocean ridges (no where older than 208 M years).

Review: (1) The oldest rock, 4.2 to 4.4 billion years old, is found where? __ The youngest rock, being formed constantly, is found where? __ (2) In what epoch do we live? __ (3) Of the six major extinction periods, when was the most recent (the 6th one)? __ (4) The oldest mountains listed on our textbook geologic time scale are the __. The youngest mountains listed are the __. (5) The inner core of the earth is solid iron, yet it is very, very hot. Why is the iron not liquid? __ (6) In the earth’s outer core, the magnetic field is generated. Earlier in the semester you learned that the magnetosphere protects the earth from the __. (7) Tectonic plates move because of the underlying, plastic region of the mantle. This region, which is molten and slowly moves, is called the __. (8) The earth’s crust is one of two things. Either it’s continental crust, in which case it is made of __, or it’s oceanic crust, in which case it is made of __. (9) There are three types of rocks: __, which are the result of tectonic activity; __, which are the result of cementing, compacting, and hardening of rock particles; and __, which result from great pressures and temperatures. (10) In 1912, a man named __ hypothesized continental drift. The basic idea was correct. Plate tectonic theory is now widely accepted as fact. (11) Where do we find hotspot activity? (give a location) __ (12) Why is there coal in the Appalachian mountains? (Be specific.)__

Homework for Thursday: Go to the BBC website (http://www.bbc.co.uk) and find an article about an earthquake or volcanic eruption. On an index card (or similar sized piece of paper), write down the name and date of the article, along with a brief description: where, what, when of the earthquake or volcanic eruption. Bring your index card to class.

March 3: Chapter 12

Natural Hazards: Natural hazards are occurrences that humans, at least in theory, didn't cause. They include:
(1) events driven by earth's surface processes (landslides, river flooding, collapsing soils) and
(2) meterological hazards (tornadoes, cyclones, droughts).
(3) events driven by the earths' internal energy (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis); earthquakes and volcanic eruptions result (for the most part) from activity at tectonic plate boundaries, where plates either move away, strike past, or push into each other (the Ring of Fire, that encircles the Pacific Ocean, is the plate boundary area with the most tectonic activity); exceptions to this generality include the earthquake potential of New Madrid fault in Missouri.

Sometimes even tectonic plate activities can be human-induced: large reservoirs behind dams (e.g., the Three Gorges) can trigger earthquakes; and deep well injection can trigger earthquakes.

Ancient mythology - believed tremors caused by large underground animals. We know now the importance of ongoing mountain building for the continuation of life. Benefits of volcanoes include increased soil fertility (over the long-term), geothermal energy, add land, scientific/historical study. Right now, 1511 volcanoes around the world are considered to be active.

Famous eruptions: Tambora, Indonesia - 1815; 1816 Year w/o a summer; Krakatoa, Indonesia - 1883; caldera
Pinatubo, Philippines - 1991; typhoon Yunga; Clark Air base; successful evacuation; 15-20 million tons of SO2 - global cooling to offset global warming for two years; Mt. St. Helens, Washington state, US - 1980; mudslide, landslide - greatest one witnessed in recorded history, moved at 155 mph. All of these are on the Ring of Fire.
 
Video: Students watched about 20 minutes of a video entitled "The Building of the Earth". Our narrator, David Attenborough, is standing in the Himalayas, where he finds fossilized sea creatures 65 million years old. We then go to an erupting volcano in Iceland. Basalt is flowing out. Sometimes flows may travel 25 miles at a speed of 40 miles per hour. Where the basalt's center has cooled slowly and evenly many years ago, sometimes wearing away of rock will leave 6-sided columns. We saw examples of this phenomenon in Johns Causeway and in Fingal's Cave (in the Hebrides). We then saw a rare lava lake in Africa. Of interest: As you may have noticed, David Attenborough said this lava lake was in Nyiragongo. This is where the volcanic eruption occurred on January 17, 2002 (in Congo). Hundreds of thousands fled. During the last major eruption in 1977, 2000 died. Next, we saw the underwater volcanic eruptions in the Atlantic Ocean. Along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, basalt erupts from fissures. The basalt built the ridge and also the ocean floor. The new material is near the ridge and the further away from the ridge, the older the ocean floor. Along the Pacific coast of the Americas, the plate is going under (subducting) the continental plate taking sea water, sediments, and gases with it. So, when there is a volcanic eruption along the Pacific coast, it is quite explosive. In May 1980, Mt. St. Helens in Washington state erupted, blowing away 3/4 cubic mile of rock. The blast was 500 times more powerful than the bomb that destroyed Hiroshima at the end of WWII. The forests were destroyed and, on the north side of the mountain, an avalanche carried rock 15 miles, burying everything in its path. The summit was 1000' lower after the eruption. Over 60 people (those who did not heed the warning to evacuate) were killed. In 1883, a tremendous series of volcanic eruptions occurred on the small island of Krakatoa (between the islands of Java and Sumatra in Indonesia). Lava the size of houses was thrown into the air. Explosions occurred day after day. The column of smoke rose 5 miles high and electric flames played over the island. When the lava chamber was empty, the chamber collapsed and as sea water and rocks rushed in, probably the loudest noise in recorded history occurred (heard 2000-3000 miles away). A tsunami (a wall of water, caused by seismic activity) about 100 feet high hit the adjacent islands killing over 36,000. Total darkness, in a radius of perhaps 100 miles, lasted for several days. Three quarters of the main island disappeared, and particles from the eruption circled the earth about 7 1/2 times. Forty four years later, another island rose from the sea. This "child of Krakatoa" is now a very active volcano. Sulfur, that we saw around the edge of the new volcano, is always emitted in volcanic eruptions. For example, if you go two miles under the sea where lava is erupting through fissures in the earth, you'll find black sulfide "smokers". While we used to think that all life on earth came directly or indirectly from the sun, here bacteria feed off the sulfides. The bacteria, in turn, are food for 11 foot tube worms, 2 foot clams, large white blind crabs, and strange-looking fish. Here, life owes nothing to the sun.

The primary hazards of volcanic eruptions are:
(1) lava flows: the molten rock that's extruded onto the earth's surface (can sterilize agricultural land for years, but can also provide rich agricultural soils in the future)
(2) pyroclastic flows: the most explosive volcanic eruptions (caused by the
gases in the lava); responsible for about 70% of all volcano-related deaths
(3) ash-fall tephra: all eruptions emit tephra; it can be fine ash up to tephra "bombs" (big as a house).
Secondary hazards:
(1) gas: sulfur dioxide, but also hydrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, fluorine
(2) mudflows and landslides: for example, the collapse of a crater lake would mobilize water and earth; can be very dangerous
(3) tsunami: the 1883 collapse of Krakatoa, seen in the video, is an example.
(4) caldera (e.g., Crater Lake, southern Oregon); caldera occur when the magma chamber is empty and the overbearing rock collapses. A large depression is created.

Review: (1) Most tectonic activity occurs along plate boundaries. Because of the high number of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes that occur around the Pacific Ocean, this area is called __. (2) Magma extrude onto the surface is called __; when it is intruded, it is called __. (3) In 1991, in the Philippines, __ erupted, the largest eruption in 50 years. (4) Where is the newest part of the ocean floor? __ (5) In May 1980, __ in Washington state erupted. The blast was 500 times more powerful than the bomb that destroyed Hiroshima in 1945. (6) In 1883, the small Indonesian island of __ was destroyed by a volcanic eruption. The tsunami that followed killed over 36,000 people. (7) We used to think that all life on earth depended directly or indirectly on the sun, yet in the depths of the oceans we find creatures that get their energy from the interior of the earth, most specifically from __. The most explosive volcanic eruptions are __ (i.e., this type of eruption causes the most deaths).

March 8: Chapter 12

Earthquakes – look on page 380 (Table 12.2) and you will see that earthquakes are deadly - 50,000 died in 1990 Iranian quake, 25,000 in 1989 Armenia, and 100s of 1000s in 1976 Chinese quake.

A fault is a zone of weakness.

Prediction of earthquakes
successful: 1975 evacuation in Northeast China just hours prior to 1975 earthquake
unsuccessful: 1976 earthquake in Northeast China, killed 250,000

Mercalli (qualitative) and Richter (quantitative)
Richter - log scale (1 unit = 10 times magnitude; and 31.5 times energy). It was developed in 1935 by Charles Richter. 9 on Richter scale is probably max; a 4 is comparable to 1000 tons of explosives and an 8 is comparable to 200 one-megaton nuclear bombs.
The Mercalli scores vary from I to XII (1 - 12 in Roman numerals), and are different depending on how far one is away from the earthquake's epicenter. For example, a Mercalli score of III means that "many people indoors feel movement. Hanging objects swing back and forth. People outdoors might not realize that an earthquake is occurring." In an XI earthquake, "most buildings collapse. Some bridges are destroyed. Large cracks appear in the ground. Underground pipelines are destroyed. Railroad tracks are badly bent." And so on.

FOCUS = subsurface area along a fault plane, where the motion of seismic waves is initiated and
EPICENTER = area at the surface directly above the focus

The hazards of earthquakes:  The primary hazard is earth shaking. The secondary hazards are:
1. fire (e.g., Tokyo, 1923 - braziers)
2. soil liquefaction (Kobe, 1995) .... fill material
3. landslides
4. tsunami (Alaska, 1964)

US earthquakes
New Madrid - 1811-1812 (New Madrid is in Missouri; earthquakes occur along, more or less, the Mississippi River; a fairly large earthquake is likely to occur here within the next 2 or 3 decades.)
San Francisco - 1906, 1989
Alaska - 1964 - 8.6 quake

Students watched a film on earthquakes, in the Earth Revealed series. When the Loma Prieta earthquake occurred, on October 17, 1989, the Giants and A's were beginning their World Series game in San Francisco. About 90 kilometers south of San Francisco, at the boundary between the North American and Pacific plates (known as the San Andreas), the earthquake occurred at 5:04 p.m. According to the U.S. Geological Service (USGS), the earthquake registered 7.1 on the Richter scale. A major highway collapsed, as did neighborhoods near the water. Immediately, all levels of government mobilized to provide food, shelter, and medical attention. Private citizens and organizations, from Santa Cruz to San Francisco, helped out. The USGS got out quickly to gather data, as road repairs, wind, and rain can erase valuable information. In fact, the USGS was set back a little, as their own building sustained damage. USGS scientists warned citizens that aftershocks were expected, being the most dangerous in the first week or two. Aftershocks can occur for several months afterwards. The fault that broke wasn't quite what had been expected. The west side rode up two meters on the east side, and the focus was 18 kilometers down, deep for a California earthquake. Because of the depth, the earthquake did not directly cause ruptures in the soil, but numerous fissures occurred as the result of landslides. The earthquake was quite brief, only about 8 seconds in duration. The San Andreas has a 30 million year history. Along its 1200 kilometer length are discrete segments. This earthquake occurred along one of the six segments for which it was predicted that, between 1988-2018, the chance for a 6.5 earthquake was likely. After this earthquake, the people had a sense of relief, but actually this wasn't the "big one." The real "big one" is likely to be closer to population centers and to shake the ground longer. In fact, the Loma Prieta earthquake was a moderate earthquake. In 1906, a 8.3 earthquake (with energy released 60 times that of this 1989 earthquake) devastated San Francisco. Nine years later, in 1915, San Francisco wanted to market itself as a good port for the International Exposition. Building in the marina district incorporated rubble from the 1906 earthquake as well as uncompacted sand and mud. When the 1989 earthquake occurred, this uncompacted material liquidified (in a process called soil liquefaction); the ground motion was amplified by a factor of 5 compared to that only one mile away. Fortunately, there are maps of loosely consolidated ground, so that construction can be avoided in these liquefaction-prone areas. Research aimed at predicing earthquakes has including looking at possible deformation of the earth's crust, electromagnetic waves, and groundwater levels. At Stanford University, a scientist studying low frequency electromagnetic waves had his equipment almost at the epicenter of the Loma Prieta. Surprisingly, the equipment survived and recorded huge signals three hours prior to the earthquake. The computer couldn't even record the waves accurately, and sent error messages. Scientists are particularly concerned about the Hayward fault, east of San Francisco. A population 15 times that of San Francisco is at risk in this area. Unrestricted growth is a tremendous problem, with buildings and highways having been built where they shouldn't have been. Now, we can't tear them down, but we can retrofit exsiting structures to survive an earthquake. A seismic early warning system is being installed. The instant an earthquake is recorded, radio signals will go out, giving communities a few seconds to take cover and immobilize the public transportation system. In the 1989 earthquake, 63 died, 3800 were injured, 28,000 structures were damaged, and $6 billion in damage was sustained. If the World Series had not been going on, more people would likely have been on the highway, and the death toll would have been higher. To have the best chance of surviving a major earthquake, we need to do the following: avoid building in liquefaction zones, retrofit old buildings and construct new buildings to withstand earthquakes, store emergency supplies, establish an earthquake plan with your family, and insist on the development of an earthquake policy and building codes.

Review: (1) There are two scales for measuring the magnitude of an earthquake: a qualitative scale and a quantitative scale. The _ scale is qualitative. (2) A 9.0 earthquake has a magnitude _ times that of a 5.0 earthquake.
(3) The subsurface area along a fault plane, where the motion of seismic waves is initiated is called the _. The area at the surface directly above this point is called the _. (4) The primary hazard of earthquakes is _. Name two of the secondary hazards associated with earthquakes._ (5) A significant potential for earthquakes exists near us, in Missouri. This earthquake-prone area is called the _. (6) On October 17, 1989, as a baseball game between the Giants and the A’s was getting underway, an earthquake called the _ occurred. It is part of the _ fault. (7) What irony connects the 1906 and 1989 San Francisco earthquakes?_ (8) Along the _ fault, east of San Francisco, a very large (and growing) population is at risk. (9) How does one prepare for earthquakes? Name three ways in which an individual, government, and/or business can prepare._

March 10: Chapter 13

Weathering, Karst Landscapes and Mass Movement

Geomorphology is the science of landforms.
Denudation is the process that wears away or rearranges landforms.

Weathering is the process of surface/sub-surface rock disintegrating into mineral particles or dissolving in water.
Weathering generates the particles for transport, but (by definition) weathering does not transport.

See page 404, figure 13.5 a:
Jointing, the fractured or separations in rocks (joints), is important for weathering.
Bedrock is the rock of Earth’s crust that is below the soil and is basically unweathered; such solid crust sometimes is exposed as an outcrop.
In Kentucky, our bedrock is limestone.
Regolith is at the upper surface of bedrock, which undergoes continual weathering. Regolith is broken-up rock.
On top of that, the particles, mixed with decaying vegetation, becomes the soil. So, soil is created, but nowadays at a much slower rate than it is eroded.

Weathering occurs at different rates and has different causes, in different places:
Minimal weathering occurs in extreme dryness and most rocks weather rapidly in hot, wet, tropical climates.
Physical weathering occurs in drier, cooler climates and chemical weathering occurs in wetter, warmer climates.
Vegetation can protect rock and can also provide organic acids to hasten chemical weathering. Plant roots can enter crevices and break up rock.

The Physical weathering processes include:
1. Crystallization (salt-crystal growth): especially in arid climates, the dry weather draws moisture to the surface of the rocks. The water evaporates and crystals form from the dissolved minerals. Over time, the crystals grow, exert force, and break up the rock.
2. Hydration: Water is absorbed by the mineral, leading to swelling and stress within the rock. The rock grains are forced apart.
3. Frost action: Water expands by as much as 9% of its volume as it freezes. The repeated freezing and thawing action can exceed the tensional strength of rock and break is apart.
•    This is the reason we get pot holes.
•    In the old days, people would drill holes in rock, pour in water, and plug it up. During the winter, the expanding ice would break off large blocks of rock. In the spring, the blocks would be hauled to the cities for construction.
•    If you’re a hiker, you should be cautious hiking in mountainous terrain in the spring. As the ice melts, newly fractured rock pieces can fall without warning and may even start rock slides.
4. Pressure-release jointing (remember that joints are separations): When regolith that covers a pluton (intrusive igneous rock) is eroded and transported away, the pluton is increasingly exposed and heaves upward, peeling off rock in curved slabs or plates (the process is called sheeting). The result is an arch-shaped/dome-shaped rock mass.
•    Natural bridge is an example of this.

Chemical Weathering includes:
Chemical weathering will be in the presence of water. Acid rain is an example of something that causes chemical weathering. With chemical weathering, the minerals actually decompose and decay. Chemical breakdown is more intense with high temperature and precipitation.
1. Spheroidal weathering: water penetrates joints and dissolves the rock’s cementing materials. So, with sedimentary rock, the common cements are calcium carbonate, iron oxides, and silica. These chemicals are dissolved.
2. Hydrolysis: The mineral combine with water (in contrast with hydration, where the water is simply absorbed) in chemical reactions that produce different or weaker minerals that fall apart (granular disintegration takes place).
•    The by-product of chemical weathering of granite includes clay and silica
3. Oxidation: Oxygen dissolved in water oxidizes (combines with) metallic elements to form oxides. The “rusting” of iron in rocks or soil results in a reddish-brown stain. These rocks then weather easily because these oxides are physically weaker than the original iron-bearing mineral.
4. Carbonation and solution: The simplest form of chemical weathering occurs when mineral dissolves into solution. Water is a universal solvent, capable of dissolving at least 57 natural elements and many of its compounds. Water readily dissolves carbon dioxide, yielding precipitation that is a weak carbonic acid. The acid, while weak, is strong enough to react with limestone in a process called carbonation. Carbon combines and transforms minerals containing calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium into carbonates.
As a result of the chemical process of carbonation, Kentucky has karst. It was originally named for the Krs Plateau in Yugoslavia (where the processes were first studied).
•    Limestone is very abundant. Many landscapes are composed of it. It is extremely susceptible to chemical weathering.
•    The result is a landscape of pitted/bumpy surface topography, poor surface drainage, well-developed channels underground, sink holes, disappearing streams, and underground caverns.
•    About 15% of earth’s land area has some developed karst. Outstanding examples, other than Kentucky, are in China, Japan, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Yucatan in Mexico, and in the US (Indiana, New Mexico, and Florida).

Caves and Caverns:
The study of caves is called speleology.
Most are formed in limestone rock, because it is so easily dissolved by carbonation. Caves are generally just beneath the water table. Later lowering of the water level exposes them to further development.
Stalactites (grown down from ceiling) and stalagmites (build up from floor) are produced as water containing dissolved minerals slowly drips from cave ceiling. The calcium carbonate precipitates out of the evaporating solution. The stalactites and stalagmites sometimes connect to form a column.

Mammoth Cave in western Kentucky:
•    The cave is about 28 miles east northeast of Bowling Green.
•    It has a series of large irregular chambers in five levels. The total length of the chambers and passages is over 300 miles.
•    Mammoth Cave was known to American Indians prior to discovery by white men, around 1799.
•    Mammoth Cave was the source of saltpeter in War of 1812.
•    Frozen Niagara (onyx cascades, gypsum flowers, stalactites and stalagmites) was discovered in 1923.
•    The cave system is now a National Park (established in 1941, with 52,708 acres) and an international Biosphere Reserve.

Mass Movement: This is the downward movement of materials propelled and controlled by gravity.
1. Slide: is the sudden rapid movement of a cohesive mass of regolith and/or bedrock that isn’t saturated with moisture. For example, on March 27, 1964, when the Pacific plate plunged under the North American plate near Anchorage, Alaska, an earthquake was triggered that, in turn, triggered 80 slides.
2. Flow: when the moisture content is high, a flow (e.g., earthflow, mudflow) can result. For example, in 1925, after heavy rains at Jackson Hole, WY, the slope broke loose and flowed down as a unit.
3. Falls and avalanches: this is a rockfall where a quantity of rock falls through the air and hits a surface. Fall and tumbling rock, debris, and soil (called a debris avalanche) is extremely dangerous because of the tremendous speed and lack of warning. In 1962, 460 million cubic feet of material buried several towns in Peru; thousands were killed.
4. Creep: This is the persistent mass movement of surface soil. Cycles of moistness and dryness, daily temperature variations, freezing and thawing, and grazing animals, and so on cause this to occur.
5. Human-induced mass movement: This included highway roadcuts, surface mining activity, and overworking the soil. Large open-pit strip mines, such as Berkeley Pit in Butte, Montana, are examples of human-induced mass movement, generally called scarification.
 
Review: (1) Weathering occurs as a result of a/an _ process (in drier conditions) or a/an _ process (in moister conditions). (2) How does frost action break up rock?_ (3) Under the soil and on top of the bedrock is the _. It undergoes continual weathering. (4) Give a well-known example of pressure-release jointing, found in Kentucky: _
(5) While hydration is a physical process, _ is a chemical process in which minerals and water react to form different minerals that are weak, and fall apart. (6) Kentucky has a/an _ topography because of a chemical process called carbonation. (7) The study of caves is called _. (8) Of all mass movements, _ are generally the most dangerous because of tremendous speed and lack of warning.(9) Human-induced mass movements, such as the open-pit strip mine in Butte, Montana, is called _.

March 22: Chapter 14

Hydrology = science of water

Rivers and waterways:
•    Earth’s lifeblood
•    Rivers redistribute mineral nutrients important for soil formation and plant growth
•    Provide us with essential water supplies
•    Receive, dilute, transport wastes
•    Provide critical cooling water for industry
•    Form one of the world’s most important transportation networks

At any given moment, 300 cubic miles of water is flowing through Earth’s waterways.

Page 431, Table 14.1:
•    River with the greatest discharge = Amazon (flows into Atlantic)
•    Longest river = Nile (flows in Mediterranean Sea)
•    Largest river in Africa = Congo (flows into Atlantic)
•    Largest river in Asia = Yangtze (Chang Jiang) (into East China Sea)
•    The largest river in North America = Mississippi River

Definitions:
•    Fluvial = stream-related processes; powered by insolation and gravity (which power the hydrologic cycle)
•    Erosion = wind, water, ice dislodge, dissolve, and remove surface material
•    Fluvial erosion = streams supply weathered sediment for transport to new locations, where laid down in process known as deposition.
Eroded materials are transported by these processes:
•    After a heavy rainfall, the water is brown. These are sediments. This process is called suspension. The suspended load is fine-grained, bits and pieces of rock, physically left aloft in the streams. The heavier particles will settle out, but the finest particles aren’t deposited until the stream velocity is near zero. Bed load: These are the coarser materials that are rolled, bounced, and dragged along the stream bed. The first Spanish explorers to visit the Grand Canyon reported in journals that they were kept awake at night by the thundering sound of boulders tumbling along the Colorado River bed. The Colorado now moves more slowly because of the dams and control facilities, so this no longer occurs. Aggradation: This is the opposite of degradation. When the sediment load of a stream exceeds the capacity of the stream, sediments accumulate and builds up the stream channel. For example, the Yellow River’s bed is higher than the adjacent countryside. Levies are necessary to protect villages. An interesting example of sediments is on page 440. These are called braided streams. The braids look white and are very fine sediments from glacial melt.
•    Solution: Minerals, salts, and chemicals (such as sulfuric acid)  are dissolved in the water.

•    Alluvium = general term for clay, silt, and sand transported by running water. An alluvial fan = fan-shaped fluvial landform at the mouth of a canyon; generally occurs in arid landscapes where streams are intermittent
•    Drainage basin – also called a catchment area or watershed: hills or mountains form the sides of the “basin” and all water flows toward the lowest point (whether north, south, or whatever). Figure 14-3: base level (the lowest point where erosion can occur) is generally taken to be sea level; however, there are exceptions. The biggest drainage basin have continental divides at the top of basin" – extensive mountain and highland regions that separate vast drainage basins, so west of the Rocky Mountains, the water flows to the Pacific. East of the Rocky Mountains, the water flows to the Mississippi River, Gulf of Mexico, and eventually the Atlantic. East of the Appalachians, the water flows to the Atlantic. We (in Lexington, KY) are in the Ohio drainage basin. The rainfall in north central Pennsylvania generates streams which form the Allegheny River, which joins the Monongahela River at Pittsburg, becoming the Ohio River, which joins and becomes part of the Mississippi River at Cairo, Illinois, which flows to the Gulf of Mexico

Look on page 436, Figure 14.8: Drainage patterns. Say you have a volcanic mountain. Which of these drainage patterns would you expect to see flowing off of it? (c) Radial

The flow generally increases, beginning as small trickles and ending up as rivers.

In some cases, rivers begin in moist highlands (like the Wind River Mountains of Wyoming) and then flow into dry lands. In this case, the stream is called an “exotic” river. The Nile River is an example. The world’s longest river, it drains much of northeastern Africa, then flows through the deserts of Sudan and Egypt, losing water as it goes. The Nile’s discharge is relatively small. In the U.S., the Colorado River is an exotic river.

The next issue has to do with the way the stream flows – the channel patterns.
Velocity: The greatest velocity is in the center of the stream, near the surface (this is where the stream is the deepest). The velocity decreases closer to the sides and bottoms of the channel, because of frictional drag on water flow. Along meandering streams (snakelike streams), the greatest erosion will occur on the outer edge of the stream. Sediments will be deposited on the inner edge of the stream. An Oxbow lake (page 442), will form when the stream erodes the outside bank. The neck of the land created by the looping meander eventually erodes through and forms a cutoff. When the former meander becomes isolated from the rest of the river, an oxbow lake is created. Sometimes, these lakes will fill with silt or they may become part of the river when it floods.

Stream beds can and do shift, so it is not good to base boundaries on river channels. For example, part of Kentucky’s Fulton County is separated from the rest of Kentucky by the Mississippi River. To get to this part of the county (sometimes called Madrid Bend), one has to go through 8 miles of Tennessee.

At the end of the journey, we have deposition. It comes after weathering, mass movement, erosion, transport. The stream deposits alluvium (unconsolidated sediments) and often creates specific depositional landforms: sandbars and deltas. A delta will not be formed if the sediment load is small and/or the velocity is high. The Amazon does not have a true delta. These sediments will be deposited in the floodplain. The floodplain is the flat low-lying area along the stream channel that is subjected to recurrent flooding. 

From the DVD Journal to Planet Earth: Rivers of Destiny (1999): The Amazon River is enormous and is fed by snowmelt from the Andes. The Amazon has three tributaries that are bigger than the Mississippi River. The river provides one-sixth of the world's freshwater flow. One day's discharge of water would provide for New Yorkers' needs, for 12 years. Along the Amazon River is the world's largest rainforest. Here, the indigenous people have been pushed aside and have almost disappeared. For six or seven months of the year, dense tropical rains inundate the Amazon. There are no vast engineering works on this river, so the water performs naturally, rising up to 30' during the rainiest season. In this land of water, one finds over 3000 species of fish (three times as many species as in all of North America). As a result of encroachment of farmers, ranchers, and urban settlement, less than 30% of the lower Amazon floodplain is still intact. Many don't realize that the fate of fishing is tied to the fate of the land. Already, the fish brought to market are much smaller than in the past; not a good sign.

Review: (1) The science of water is called _. (2) The river with the greatest discharge is the _. It flows into the Atlantic. On what continent does it begin? _ (3) The longest river in the world is the Nile. It begins in moister biomes and travels through desert. This feature (of flowing from wet to dry areas) makes this a/an _ river. (4) Eroded materials can be transported via streams in a variety of ways. For example, in a process called _, fine-grained, bits and pieces of rock are physically left aloft in the streams. A process called _ involves minerals, salts, and other chemicals being actually dissolved in the water. (5) The process of aggradation is exemplified in the _ River, which is in China. (6) A/an _ is a semi-circular shaped landform at the mouth of a canyon. These generally occur in arid landscapes where the streams do not flow year-round. (7) Kentucky lies within the _ drainage basin.
(8) Why does the water in a stream flow more slowly near the bottom than at the center of the stream, near the surface? _ (9) A/an _ Lake is formed as a result of erosion and deposition on meandering streams. (10) After weathering, mass movement, and transport, unconsolidated sediments are deposited. The depositional plain formed where a river enters a lake or an ocean is called a/an _.

March 24: Chapter 15

We began class by watching Let the River Run, a film taken from footage that was lost for over 30 years. Before Glen Canyon, along the Colorado River, was flooded, David Brower documented the way this beautiful, natural area looked. In 1963, Glen Canyon Dam was completed and Glen Canyon disappeared. The Glen Canyon Dam holds back the waters of Lake Powell, but the purpose of the dam is not really provision of water. The Bureau of Reclamation stated that the dam's purpose was to regulate the flows, but this was already being accomplished by Hoover Dam (with Lake Mead behind it). In fact, the Glen Canyon Dam has exacerbated water quantity problems, as much of the water seeps into the porous sandstone.

In-class Exercise: (1) On the base map provided, identify: the Colorado River, Glen Canyon Dam, the Grand Canyon (general area), Hoover Dam, and the deserts of the southwestern U.S. (2) The 1991 Gulf War impact the desert disrupted the desert pavement, as it was shattered by explosives and heavy vehicles; it then blew away.
(3) Tons of soil were blown away from the American Great Plains in the 1930s. This event is called the Dust Bowl.
(4) In South America, between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes, lies the Atacama Desert. (5) Wind “sculptures” are called ventifacts (or yardangs). Sometimes the wind may do part of the work and humans do the rest. A possible example of this combined action is the Sphinx, found in Egypt. (6) The unwanted expansion of the Earth’s desert lands is occurring via a process called desertification. For example, this phenomenon is occurring in Africa, along the southern edge of the Sahara Desert. This increasingly dry land adjacent to the Sahara is called the Sahel. (7) While precipitation in the desert is rare, it does occur. In those cases, dangerous torrents called flash floods can occur. The water flows down streambeds that are usually dry. The Spanish word for these streambeds is arroyo. (8) If you go to the Oregon coast, you will see wind-sculpted accumulations of sand called dunes. A very large area of these accumulations is called an erg desert (or a sand sea). (9) If there are lots of loose sediments, and the wind blows them all away, the resulting sunken area is called a/an blowout depression. (10) Sand dunes migrate downwind as individual sand particles are moved by the wind, and redeposited; as a result, the sand dune shifts slowly downwind. In terms of rainfall, Antarctica is a desert. (11) The majority of particles blown by the wind skip and bounce across the land in an action called saltation. The particles that are too large to skip and bounce, slide and roll; this movement is called surface creep. (12) The wind removes and lifts loose particles; this process is called deflation. (13) After the light materials are blown away, pebbles and gravels are left; this landscape feature is called desert pavement. (14) Sometimes ephemeral (meaning that they disappear and reappear) lakes occur in deserts. When they dry up, salt crusts can be left behind. One of these low areas is called a playa. (15) The grinding of rock surfaces with a “sandblasting” action by particles captured in the air is called abrasion. (16) In some deserts, the wind direction shifts and builds huge dunes; these are the star dunes. (17) In the western U.S., a dry climate with few permanent streams or outlets to the ocean is present. This area is called the Basin and Range Province. (18) Erosion, transportation, and deposition – by wind – is called eolian. (19) As glaciers retreated at the end of the last ice age, fine-grained clays and silts were left behind. The wind carried these deposits, called loess, long distances and re-deposited them in homogeneous deposits. In China, major deposits are found in the northeastern part of the country.

TEST 2: Multiple Choice: Read the questions carefully. Select the BEST response. Two (2) points each.
 
1. You are visiting friends in Central America and the sun is directly overhead. This point, the only point, receiving perpendicular solar radiation at a given moment, is called the:
a. insolation        b. solar constant    c. sunspot        d. subsolar point   
2. Which of the following is an incorrect statement about Earth’s atmosphere?
a. Most of the mass of the atmosphere as well as water vapor and life forms are in the troposphere
b. In the thermosphere, molecules have a great deal of kinetic energy and so the temperature is very low
c. In the troposphere, the temperature tends to drop about 3.5 degrees F for every 1000 feet in elevation
d. The mesosphere is very cold. In fact, it is the coldest part of the atmosphere.
3. In the San Bernardino Mountains, the trees are dying. Why?
a. Carbon monoxide exposure has effectively shut down photosynthesis in the forest
b. Acid rain is killing these forests, just as these pollutants are killing temperate forests around the world
c. Ozone exposure has weakened the trees, allowing other agents (such as the bark beetle) to kill them
d. Copper arsenate is the primary culprit
4. Which of the following is not part of the explanation of why the sky is blue?
a. the sky is blue because of Rayleigh scattering
b. blues and violets scatter the most in the lower atmosphere
c. the longer the wavelength, the greater the scattering
d. sunlight has more blue than violet wavelengths
5. Which of the following is a false statement about deserts?
a. some deserts lie in the rain shadow of mountains
b. some deserts, such as Chili’s coastal desert, are found far away from significant bodies of water
c. a band of deserts are found at 30 degrees north and south latitude
d. as tectonic plates move, the location of deserts also moves
6. If you wanted to visit Italy when it was least likely to rain, you would visit in the summer time. You know that this is the case because Italy has a Mediterranean climate. In the Koppen system, a Mediterranean climate is designated as:
a. Csa        b. Dfa        c. Af        d. ET
7. In what African country does one find the largest expanse of tropical rainforest?
a. Brazil    b. Egypt    c. Congo    d. Indonesia
8. While it may be a small area, the southeastern corner of each continent has a Cfa climate. Thus, we in Kentucky share the same climate type with another country that is almost exactly the same size (territory-wise) as the U.S. This is the country of:
a. Germany    b. Russia    c. Chile        d. China
9. Based upon the Koppen system, what kind of climate would you encounter in Iraq?
a. an A climate        b. a B climate        c. a C climate        d. a D climate
10. Tibet, in southwestern China, has an “H” climate. What does this mean?
a. Tibet is a desert            b. Tibet has a temperate climate    c. Tibet’s climate is an undifferentiated highland
d. Tibet is a tropical savanna
11. In what epoch do we live?
a. Cretaceous        b. Holocene        c. Cenozoic        d. Quaternary   
12. An 8.8 earthquake (on the Richter scale) has a magnitude _ times that of a 5.8 earthquake.
a. 3        b. 30        c. 100        d. 1000
13. The primary hazard of earthquakes is:
a. earth shaking    b. soil liquefaction    c. fire            d. landslides
14. The river with the greatest discharge is the ______________________.
a. Nile        b. Congo    c. Amazon    d. Yangtze
15. Eroded materials can be transported via streams in a variety of ways. For example, via one process, fine-grained, bits and pieces of rock are physically held aloft in the streams. A process called __ involves minerals, salts, and other chemicals being actually dissolved in the water.
a. oxidation        b. solution        c. suspension        d. dissolution
Fill-in-the-blank: Read the sentences carefully. Select the BEST response from the WORD BANK provided. Write the LETTER CODE on the answer sheet. Two (2) points each.
Kentucky lies within the (16)__ drainage basin.
A/an (17)__ Lake is formed as a result of erosion and deposition on meandering streams.
Tons of soil were blown away from the American Great Plains in the 1930s. This event is called the (18)__.
In South America, between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes, lies the (19)__ Desert.
The unwanted expansion of the Earth’s desert lands is occurring via a process called (20)__. For example, this phenomenon is occurring in Africa, along the southern edge of the Sahara Desert. This increasingly dry land adjacent to the Sahara is called the (21)__.
Sometimes ephemeral (meaning that they disappear and reappear) lakes occur in deserts. When they dry up, salt crusts can be left behind. The name for a low area like this is a/an (22)__.
 A/an (23)__ is a body of rock that does not conduct groundwater in usable amounts; an impermeable rock layer. On the other hand, a/an (24)__ is a body of rock that conducts groundwater in usable amounts; a permeable layer of rock.
The (25)__ is the upper surface of groundwater; that contact point between the zone of saturation and aeration in an unconfined aquifer.
The (26)__ is a simplified model of the flow of water, ice and water vapor from place to place. Water flows through the atmosphere, across the land, where it is also stored as ice, and within groundwater. Solar energy empowers the cycle.
(27)__ water is pressurized groundwater that rises in a well or a rock structure above the local water table; may flow out onto the ground without pumping.
In addition to CO2, there are other gases that contribute to global warming. (28)__ is generated by cattle and by the bacteria in rice paddies. (29)__, most associated with stratospheric ozone depletion, is also a global warming gas. (30)__, a criteria pollutant that also combines with water to fall as acid rain, is another global warming gas.
The video, Hot Enough for You, pointed out some of the complexities of modeling the earth’s climate system. One of the complex factors has to do with the presence of (31)__. It appears that, as with the presence of CO2, more of these are associated with a warmer climate.
CO2 does not affect all plants the same. Some plants thrive under enhanced CO2; others, called the (32)__ have a smaller (or no) response.
Tectonic plates move because of the underlying, plastic region of the mantle. This region, which is molten and slowly moves, is called the (33)__.
The earth’s crust is one of two basic materials. Either it is continental crust or oceanic crust. If it is oceanic crust,  it is made of (34)__.
There are three types of rocks. (35)__ rocks are the result of tectonic activity; some rocks are the result of cementing, compacting, and hardening of rock particles; and (36)__ rocks are produced as a result of great pressures and temperatures.
Most tectonic activity occurs along plate boundaries. Because of the high number of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes that occur around the Pacific Ocean, this area is called (37)__.
When magma is extruded onto the surface of the earth, it is called (38)__.
In 1991, in the Philippines, (39)__ erupted, the largest eruption in 50 years.
In terms of the hazards posed, the most explosive volcanic eruptions are (40)__. About 70% of all volcano-related deaths are because of this primary hazard. One of the secondary hazards of volcanic eruptions is emission of gases. In particular, (41)__ gases are emitted. The evidence is a yellow film left around the edge of the volcano.
A significant potential for earthquakes exists near us, in Missouri. This earthquake-prone area is called the (42)___.
In an earthquake, the point directly above where the break occurs, on the surface of the earth, is called the (43)__.
On October 17, 1989, as a baseball game between the Giants and the A’s was getting underway in San Francisco, an earthquake occurred. It is part of the (44)__ fault.
Under the soil and on top of the bedrock is the (45)__. It is broken-up rock and it undergoes continual weathering.
While hydration is a physical process, (46)__ is a chemical process in which minerals and water react to form different minerals that are weak, and fall apart.
Kentucky has a/an (47)__ topography because of a chemical process called carbonation.
The study of caves is called (48)__.
Human-induced mass movements, such as the open-pit strip mine in Butte, Montana, are called (49)__.
A/an (50)__ is a semi-circular shaped landform at the mouth of a canyon. These generally occur in arid landscapes where the streams do not flow year-round.
Word Bank:
(aa) Alluvial fan    (ab) Appalachian    (ac) Aquiclude      (ad) Aquifer    (ae) Arroyo    (af) Arsenic  
(ag) Artesian    (ah) Asthenosphere    (ai) Atacama    (ba) Basalt       (bb) Batholith    (ca) C3    (cb) C4
(cc) Capillary water    (cd) Carbon    (ce) Carbon dioxide    (cf)Carbon monoxide    (cg) Carbonation
(ch) Cartography    (ci) Cavernology    (cj) CFCs    (ck) Clouds    (cl) Consumptive use    (da) Deflation
(db)Desert pavement     (dc) Desertification    (dd) Drawdown     (de) Dust Bowl    (ea) Epicenter
(fa) Flash flood    (fb) Focus    (ga) Granite      (gb) Groundwater    (gc) Groundwater mining  
(ha) Hydrologic cycle    (hb) Hydrology    (hc) Hydrolysis       (hd) Hygroscopic water    (ia) Igneous
(ib) Infiltration      (ic) Isostasy     (ka) Karst    (kb) Krakatoa    (la) Lava    (lb) Lithosphere    (lc) Loma Prieta
(ma) Magnetosphere    (mb) Mantle    (mc) Metamorphic    (md) Methane    (me) Mississippi    (mf) Mojave
(na) New Madrid    (nb) Nitrogen oxides    (oa) Obsidian    (ob) Oceans    (oc) Ohio    (od) Oxbow
(pa) Percolation      (pb) Permeability    (pc) Pinatubo    (pd) Playa    (pe) Pluton       (pf) Porosity
(pg) POTET   (ph) Precipitation    (pi) Pyroclastic    (ra) Regolith    (rb) Ring of Fire    (sa) Sahara
(sb) Sahel    (sc) Saint Helens    (sd) San Andreas    (se) Sand dune    (sf) Scarification    (sg) Sedimentary
(sh) Solution    (si) Speleology    (sj) Sulfur    (sk) Suspension    (ta) Tambora    (tb) Total runoff  
(tc) Transpiration    (wa) Water table
Key to test that begins with "You are visiting...": (1) d (2) b (3) c (4) c (5) b (6) a (7) c (8) d (9) b (10) c (11) b (12) d (13) a (14) c (15) b (16) oc (17) od (18) de (19) ai (20) dc (21) sb (22) pd (23) ac (24) ad (25) wa (26) ha (27) ag (28) md (29) cj (30) nb (31) ck (32) cb (33) ah (34) ba (35) ia (36) mc (37) rb (38) la (39) pc (40) pi (41) sj (42) na (43) ea (44) sd (45) ra (46) hc (47) ka (48) si (49) sf (50) aa
Key to test that begins with "If you wanted...": (1) a (2) c (3) d (4) b (5) c (6) b (7) d (8) a (9) c (10) b (11) d (12) b (13) c (14) c (15) b (16) ac (17) ad (18) wa (19) ha (20) ag (21) md (22) cj (23) nb (24) ck (25) cb (26) ah (27) ba (28) ia (29) mc (30) rb (31) la (32) pc (33) pi (34) sj (35) na (36) ea (37) sd (38) ra (39) hc (40) ka (41) si (42) sf (43) aa (44) oc (45) od (46) de (47) ai (48) dc (49) sb (50) pd

Begin material for Test #3:

March 31: Chapter 16

Oceans: seawater is a solution. The concentration of dissolved solids is called salinity - 35 %o (parts per 1000) dissolved solids – in a range from 34 to 37. Along the equator, high precipitation and low salinity (34.5 per 1000)
in hot, dry subtropical where evaporation higher and high salinity (36 per 1000). Brine is, by definition, water > 35 parts per 1000 and brackish is < 35. The floor of the Red Sea is up to 225. The salinity of seawater has probably varied a little bit over geological history.

The surface of the earth is warmed by the Sun. The surface water will freeze at -2 C (b/c of the salinity). As one goes down, the water is colder. Deep water, although cold, does not freeze because of the salinity and the great pressure.

"Building of the Earth" (remember the film) – animals that owed nothing to the sun – fed on bacteria that fed on the sulfides …. Comes from vents in the earth and called “black smokers”

The coastal environment = littoral zone (from the Latin word for “shore”)

Tides = produced by gravitational pull exerted on earth and its oceans by moon and sun
- moon 2 X that of sun
- sun
Tidal action =
- flood (rising)
- ebb (fall)
- spring (high – because of combined gravitational effect of sun/moon – when aligned)
- neap (low) – sun/moon gravitational forces offset and counteract each other
The earth’s solid and liquid surfaces experience some stretching resulting from the sun/moon gravitational pull. The stretching causes tidal bulges in the ocean.

Waves: wind friction on surface of ocean generates undulations of water. Swells: regular patterns of smooth, rounded waves. Wave train: groups of waves. Tsunami: seismic wave.

Coral Reefs:
Coral = simple marine animal with small, cylindrical, saclike body. Secrete calcium carbonate from lower part of their bodies, forming hard external skeleton. Function in symbiotic relationship with algae. Algae photosynthesize some of the food for coral. Corals provide some nutrients and shelter for algae. Coral reefs thrive in warm tropical oceans: 30 degrees north and south of the equator; 30-180 feet deep; 27-40 parts per thousand salinity; 64-85 degree F. However, corals require clear, sediment-free water and consequently they do not locate near the mouths of sediment-charged freshwater tributaries. Coral bleaching = the coral has turned white as nutrient-supplying algae are expelled by host coral. Global warming, pollution, disease, sedimentation, and salinity changes are probably the factors most to blame.

Coastal wetlands:
Mangrove swamps are found between the Equator and 30 degrees north and south. The vegetable is salt tolerant.
At latitudes over 30 degrees, one finds salt marshes; here the vegetation is also salt tolerant. Estuaries (protected water that grades from fresh to saltwater); the most important example in the U.S. is Chesapeake Bay.

The wetlands service important functions: absorb floodwaters, fish nursery, purify floodwater, and protected area for birds and fish.

Review: (1) Relatively speaking, why is salinity low in the equatorial oceans? (2) Why does deep water, although cold, not freeze? (3) A high tide, which occurs when the sun’s and moon’s gravitational forces are aligned is called __ tide. (4) From the Latin word for “shore” comes the term __ zone, meaning the coastal environment. (5) What causes the waves that you see if you go to the coast? ___ What causes tsunami waves? (6) Coral (simple marine animals) live in a symbiotic relationship with algae. How does this work? (7) If you went to the coast near the equator, what type of wetland would you expect to see? (8) A coastal wetland that is freshwater at one end and grades to saltwater at the other is called a/an __. Northeast of Kentucky is a prime example of this type wetland. What is the name of the wetland? __ 

April 5: Chapter 17

Over geologic time, variations in global temperatures occur for a number of reasons:
* Milankovitch cyclicity: tilt on plane around sun changes every 19-23,000 years; tilt of earth's axis changes approximately every 41,000 years; and the orbit changes every 100-400,000 years.
* solar cycles: 11 years, 100 (cycles of cold winters, known as little ice ages) and C-14 record shows 200 years cycles of warm and cold
* tectonic process: sulfur dioxide (cooling) and carbon dioxide (warming) emissions; movement of land masses
* meteor impacts: e.g., 65 million years ago, a meteor played a role in dinosaur extinction
* changes in atmospheric gas composition

Ice Ages: During the Pleistocene (that began 1.65 million years ago), 18 expansions of ice over Europe and North America occurred (this was over 1000s of years). Almost 1/3 of Earth's land surface was covered deeply in ice. The sea level was much lower because so much water was bound up in ice. Between 12,000 and 30,000 years ago, the American west was dotted with lakes. Now (with the exception of Salt Lake), they are dry basins with ancient shorelines - and are called paleolakes.

About 18,000 years ago, the global temperature began to rise. This was the beginning of an interglacial period. The Holocene began 10,000 when an abrupt increase in temperature occurred (about 11 degree Fahrenheit).

Even now, in the Holocene, about 77% of the Earth's freshwater is frozen, most of which is in Antarctica and Greenland. Antarctica is much coldeer than the Arctic and has 91% of all the glacial ice on the planet.

In glaciers, the snow accumulates, recrystallizes under its own weight into an ice mass. The large mass of ice rests on land or floats as an ice shelf in the sea adjacent to land. Glaciers are like metamorphic rock (in a way) because snow and ice are transformed under pressure, recrystallizing. The glacier is different internally than at the surface; it is more plastic (distorting and flowing). Glaciers move very slowly. As they move, they may develop vertical cracks called crevasses. They may lurge forward, in what is called a glacier surge. As they move, they haul debris from one place to another. The unstratified and unsorted debris is called till. The specific landforms produced by the deposition of glacial sediments are called moraines.

The types of glaciers include alpine glaciers (glaciers on mountain ranges); valley glaciers (ice masses confined within a valley that originally was formed by stream action); and continental glaciers (a continuous mass of ice, found in Greenland and Antarctica.

Sometimes chucks of ice break off the glacier in a process called calving. The resulting floating ice is called an iceberg.

The snowline is the lowest elevation where snow can survive year-round.

Permafrost (permanent frost) is found where the soil or rock temperatures have remained below freezing for at least two years. In these areas, the frozen subsurface water is called ground ice (as opposed to ground water). When the ice freezes and thaws, it can break rocks (as we discussed previously in the semester). The result of warming conditions in the Arctic has led to the "drunken forests" in Alaska. Trees, powerlines, and homes shift as the soil thaws.

We watched a video in the Earth Revealed series that illustrated the information presented in class.

Articles about glaciers were distributed. Students were asked to read and write a paragraph about the article.
For GEO 130:003 (TR 2-3:15), be prepared to discuss these articles on Thursday, April 14.
For GEO 130:004 (TR 3:30-4:45), be prepared to discuss these articles on Tuesday, April 12.
If you were not in class, you can still find one of these articles, as follows:
1. http://www.ens-newswire.com: "Arctic Collecting World's Toxic Burden" (2-18-05)
2. http://www.ens-newswire.com: "Ice is Melting Everywhere" (2-25-05)
3. http://www.ens-newswire.com: "Asian Water Shortages Forecast as Himalayan Glaciers Melt" (3-15-05)
4. http://www.enn.com: "Catastrophic Flooding from Ancient Lake May Have Triggered Cold Period" (12-16-04)
5. http://www.ens-newswire.com: "Rapid Arctic Warming Jeopardizes People, Bears, Birds" (2-1-05)

Review: (1) The term __ applies to the cycles of the earth’s tilt on its axis, its tilt around the sun, and its orbital change.
(2) A/an __ is a large mass of ice. Sometimes it rests on land and sometimes it floats adjacent to the landmass. (3) There are glacial periods and then there are __ periods. We are currently in the latter. (4) In what way are glaciers like metamorphic rock?__ (5) The unsorted debris from a glacier is called called __. This material is deposited in landforms called __. (6) While the treeline is the highest level where one finds trees, the __ is the lowest elevation where snow can survive year-round. (7) List one consequence of permafrost thaw: __ (8) In the formation of glaciers, there is an intermediate step between snow and ice. This snow/ice intermediary is called __. [firn] (9) After a glacier retreats, the landscape often looks as if it has been polished. Why is that? __ [all the debris in the glacier acts like sandpaper, scratching and buffing the rocks] (10) At the end of the last ice age, the seas began to rise. What did the formerly glaciated landmasses do? __ [they began to rise, as the weight of the glaciers lifted]

April 7: Chapter 18

Kentucky has a state soil; it is crider (which is a soil series). This soil was adopted on March 21, 1990. It is found in 26 counties, and it usually associated with prime farmland (western Kentucky).

Students watched part of a film on soils. Many people don't appreciate soil, but it is critical to life. Soil is comprised on several horizons (layers): A: humus (organic matter that has broken down) and decomposed rock; rain leaches minerals over of this layer; B: contains the leached materials; and C: partially decomposed rock. The parent rock determines what kind of soil one will find: granite to sandy soils; feldspar to clay soils; basalt to clay with iron soils. While soil initially has the characteristics of the parent rock from which it came, eventually it takes on the characteristics of the climate. In the American midwest, it takes 15,000 years to develop one meter of topsoil. In the tropics, this time is reduced to a few 1000 years. While it takes a long time to build up soil, soil can quickly be destroyed by overgrazing, deforestation, and other activities. From 1934-1938, devastation came to the Great Plains creating what is called the Dust Bowl. Drought and high winds are not unusual, but when they were coupled with grassland removal, the underlying soil was free and exposed to the wind. As a result of this disaster, the Soil Conservation Service was created in 1935, with a goal of developing farming techniques to prevent similar occurrences in the future. A farmer in the Mohave desert turned to the Soil Conservation Service for help in overcome erosion. Recommendations included: planting a tree windbreak; conservation tillage; appropriate amounts of irrigation water; and crop rotation.

The study of the origin, classification, distribution, and description of soils is called pedology.

A pedon is a soil profile (a vertical "slice" of earth, from the surface to the deepest extent of plant roots). A polypedon is a compilation of a number of pedons; it is the soil unit used in preparing local soil maps.

As you learned in the film, the soil has horizons (layers). The textbook has a bit more detail in its divisions:
A (from film) = O (organic layer, at top of soil profile) + A (humus + soil particles)
B (from film) = E (layer of coarse sand, silt, and resistant minerals) + B (layer of clays, and leached aluminum and iron)
C (from film) = C (weathered bedrock) + R (bottom of soil profile - unconsolidated material or consolidated bedrock)

Soil properties:
* soil color: red color indicates presence of iron oxides; black color (as in Ukraine) may indicate richly organic soils; and white to pale soils indicates presence of aluminum oxides and silicates.
* soil texture: soil is one or a combination of: sand, silt, and clay. A balanced mixture of the three is called loam.
* soil consistency: the optimum soil is moist, with 50-100% of field capacity (meaning the amount of water that will be used by vegetation)
* soil porosity: it is necessary to have soil pores for water and atmospheric gases (which are primarily nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide).

Formation of soil:
* dynamic factors include moisture, evaporation, and temperature (climatic factors) and plant, animal, and bacterial activity (biologic factors)
* passive factors include topography (soils don't form on a mountainside), time, and the presence of parent rock (to be slowly broken down)

Human impact on soils: People can either help or hurt the soil. Plowing should be minimizes, but necessary plowing should be on the contour rather than up and down a slope. Terracing, planting windbreaks, and applying compost are all helpful activities.

Soil classification:
There are over 15,000 soil types in the U.S. and Canada alone. The first U.S. soil classification system was devised in the 1930s. In 1951, the US Soil Conservation Service began research for a new soil classification system; the current version of their classification system dates to 1975. Soils are classified into soil orders (11-12 of these), soil suborders, soil great groups, soil sub-groups, soil families, and finally soil series. If you get an analysis of your soil, the soil type will be given as a soil series (mine is Maury, a fertile and common soil series in Fayette County).

Brief information on some of the soil orders:
* Oxisols = tropical soils
* Aridisols = desert soils (the large single soil order)
* Mollisols = important soil for agriculture (found in Great Plains, Pampas, Manchuria, Ukraine)
* Ultisols = the type of soil widely found in Kentucky. Because of precipitation, is leached but can still be fertile.
* Andisols = found around the "Ring of Fire" - volcanic parent material
* Vertisols = found in India; when the monsoon doesn't come and the soil dries, large cracks forms

Review/Exercise (1) When one talks of the soil horizons, discussion can center around O, A, E, B, C, and R layers – or can be simplified to A, B, and C layers. In the latter case, what does one find in each horizon? A: __  B: __  C: __
(2) Thinking back to previous discussions, is regolith found in the A, B, or C layer? __ (3) If you want to grow a garden, you hope for a balanced mixture of sand, silt, and clay. This mixture is called __. (4) Major atmospheric gases found in soil include nitrogen, oxygen, and __. (5) Name two factors that act to create soils: a: __ b: __ (6) The soil classification system includes 11-12 soil orders, 47 suborders, 230 great groups, 1200 sub-groups, 6000 families, and 13,000 soil __. In this smallest, most detailed category is __, Kentucky’s state soil. Open your textbook to the soil taxonomy map on pages 568-569, and to the descriptions on the following page: (7) This soil order is the most common one, occurring over nearly 1/5 of the Earth’s land surface. The name of this soil type is __. Name one place in South America where this soil type is found: __ (8) What is the soil order in Kentucky? __ What are its main characteristics? __ (9) What type of soil do you think is probably the most fertile?__ Where is that soil type found in North America? __ (10) When this soil gets dry, large cracks form. What kind of soil is this? __ Where, in Asia, is the largest concentration of this soil type? __

April 12/14: Chapter 17, 18, 19

Reminder #1: Write a one-page essay about the out-of-class presentation that you attended (see above).
Due on April 19.

Reminder #2: If you haven't turned in a summary of your project idea, please do so ASAP. The project due date has been delayed, from April 21 to April 26. See the syllabus for instructions. Students will be sharing information about their projects on the 26th.

We began the class by watching a 10 minute clip from the video "Soil Biology." From that film, what (basically) are microflora (microscopic plants), microfauna (microscopic animals), mesofauna (very small animals), and macrofauna (larger animals)? Some flagellates are not easy to define as either plant or animal; they may be mobile (like animals) and they may conduct photosynthesis (like plants). The least variety of life is present in clay. The smallest multicellular animal on this planet are the rotifers; they are aquatic, living in the thin film of water on soil particles.

We then went back to our articles on glaciers ("Arctic Collecting World's Toxic Burden" by J. R. Pegg [2-18-05, in ENS]; "Ice is Melting Everywhere" by Danielle Murray [2-25-05, in ENS]; "Asian Water Shortages Forecast as Himalayan Glaciers Melt" [3-15-05, in ENS]; "Catastrophic Flooding from Ancient Lake May Have Triggered Cold Period" [12-16-04, ENN]; "Rapid Arctic Warming Jeopardizes People, Bears, Birds" [2-1-05, ENS]) to discuss the impacts that glacial problems were having on wildlife. Problems include: (1) Chemicals are contaminating Arctic wildlife. This is occurring because winds bring contaminants to the poles, where they have been frozen in glaciers. As the glaciers melt, the pollutants are remobilized. Special attention was focused on the polar bears, already with declining numbers, and the fear that PCB and other biomagnifying pollutants may play a role in their extinction. (2) Habitat loss is the primary cause of species extinction. The articles discussed reduced food sources for polar bears and other Arctic creatures, as they lose their feeding and breeding grounds along the ice edge. The decrease in algae and plankton in the Arctic Ocean could ripple up through the food chain. Migratory birds will lose a vital breeding ground in the Arctic. (3) As the mountain glaciers melt, flooding will be followed by water shortages. Water shortages will impact human populations and also wildlife.

Students worked on the meaning of the following terms: (1) Biogeochemical cycles: one of several circuits of flowing elements and materials (carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, water) that connect Earth's biotic and abiotic systems.
(2) Biodiversity: the species richness of life on Earth. (3) Biogeography: the study of the distribution of plants and animals and the diverse spatial patterns they create. (4) Community: formed by interactions among populations of living animals and plants. (5) Consumers: they depend on producers of carbon (consumers are usually animals).
(6) Ecological succession: older (simpler) communities of plants and animals are replaced by newer (more complex) communities; there is a change of species composition. (7) Ecology: the study of the relationships between organisms and their environment and among the various ecosystems in the biosphere. (8) Food web/food chains: a complex network of interconnected food from producers to consumers; one directional flow of chemical energy, ending with decomposers. (9) Habitat: type of environment where an organism resides or is biologically adapted to live.
(10) Life zones: a zonation by altitude or latitude of plants and animals that form distinctive communities; each life zone possesses its own temperature and precipitation relations. (11) Niche: the function or occupation of a life form within a given community. (12) Producers: they use carbon dioxide as their main source of carbon, fixing carbon through photosynthesis (plants). (13) Symbiotic relationship: two or more species exist together in an overlapping (and mutually beneficial) relationship. (14) Vascular plants: a plant having internal fluid and material flows through its tissues; there are 250,000 species of vascular plants.

April 19: Chapter 19/20

As we learned earlier in the semester, we are currently in the midst of the earth's sixth great extinction period. The threats to biodiversity come from:
#1 loss and alteration of habitat;
•    outright lose of areas used by wild species;
•    degradation from vegetation removal and erosion, which deprives native species of food, shelter, and breeding areas; and
•    fragmentation - squeezing native species onto small patches of undisturbed land surrounded by areas cleared for agriculture and other purposes (please note: these fragment edges may be uninhabitable to native plants and animals because of exposure to wind, sunlight, new predators, and other factors - this is referred to as the "edge effect").
 
#2 invasive species (or non-native, exotic, alien species; this is called bio-invasion) which compete against native species, eat them, spread disease to them, and breed with them. Over-fishing was also recognized as a serious problem.
•    About one in 7 introduced species creates a problem: over-competing with, preying on, and/or introducing exotic diseases to native species. Some of the non-native species are sparrows and starlings (they're impacted native songbirds), zebra mussels (they out-compete native mussels – many of Kentucky’s endangered species of mussels, which are being outcompeted by zebra mussels), sea lamprey (a nasty critter that worked its way into the Great Lakes from the Atlantic; it kills fish).

Students watched a film entitled Strangers in Paradise: About 70 million years ago, the first Hawaiian islands appeared. As the most isolated islands in the world, only once every 50,000 years did a plant or animal make it to the islands. The spectacular silver sword evolved from a common wildflower in California. Ninety-one kinds of Lobelia evolved from Asian seeds. Fifteen million years ago, a finch-like bird came to the islands. Over 50 kinds of Hawaiian
honeycreeper evolved from those birds (all evolved with unique beaks for particular tasks). About 300 A.D., the
Polynesians came. Most lived in the lowlands because they believed the highlands were inhabited by spirits. Only the bird catcher went into the highlands. There he captured birds for their feathers. It would take 80,000 birds for one royal cloak. Feathers conferred power. The common people paid their taxes in feathers. The Polynesians revered nature, but they also burned the forests to clear land for agriculture. Their most important crop was the taro. Cultivation of the taro led to the extinction of some birds, but others thrived in the paddies. In 1778, the Europeans arrived. In 200 years, they did more damage than had the Polynesians over a much longer period of time. They brought in cows, pigs and goats. They changed the landscape. They introduced sugarcane, coconuts, parrots, and pineapples (none of which are native to Hawaii). Today, nearly 70% of the native Hawaiian birds are extinct (a publication I was just reading says the figure is now 76%). A party of biologists went searching for the O'O bird. In 1981, a pair was found. A few years later, there was only one. (FYI: several species of O'O are now listed as extinct). We saw one honeycreeper that is still doing well; the phonetic spelling is E'E'Ve. Then there's the bird with the "Swiss Army knife" bill. Alas, this adaptable creature has no natural defense against invasive nest raiders, such as the mouse and rat (of course, the owl was intrigued by this invader). We also saw a carnivorous caterpillar, an insect found only in the Hawaiian islands. It actually ambushes its prey. The Hawaiian islands have 800 native insect species, all of which evolved from a single ancestor. The ant is not one of them; it is an invasive and very destructive insect. It came with the Europeans. We saw that native creatures even exist at the top of the mountains; they survive the harsh environment by having an antifreeze type substance in their bodies. Turning to alien species, the blackberry is one (it forms a suffocating blanket). The feral pig, a combination of the small Polynesia pig and the big European boar, is the worst invader of all. It is free of predators (except for humans with rifles). It has now invaded all the islands. The U.S. Park Service kills the pigs, because pigs and a rainforest environment are incompatible. Hawaii has one quarter of the US's endangered species, most of which have no defensive mechanisms. Some of the endangered plants are cultivated in greenhouses, others are hand-pollinated. But the destruction goes on. Water collects in the pig wallows, where the mosquitoes that carry bird malaria hatch. The wallows set up the conditions for erosion. The red soil erodes out into the beautiful blue ocean, settling on the reef and sometimes killing the coral. The soil may erode as much as 4" per year. We then travel to French Frigate Shoals, where 90% of the ancient sea turtles go to breed. We see the Park Rangers help a turtle with a damaged flipper dig her nest; she then lays her eggs and, with a little help, makes it back into the ocean. This is the last safe breeding place for the monk seal. This is a place of amazing diversity, particularly of birds.

Review: (1) The #1 reason for species extinction is _. What are two examples of this phenomenon that you saw in the video Strangers in Paradise? _ (2) The #2 reason for species extinction is _. What are two examples of this phenomenon that you saw in the video Strangers in Paradise?_ (3) The first Hawaiian islands appeared, as the result of hot spot activity, about _ years ago. (4) The 50+ kinds of Hawaiian honeycreeper evolved from what type of bird? _ (5) Why did the Polynesians hunt birds?_ (6) We saw biologists searching for a Hawaiian bird called the _. It is now, as of 2005, listed as extinct. (7) An endemic species is one that is found in one place, and nowhere else. In Hawaii, there’s an endemic caterpillar. What’s so unusual about it? _ (8) A protected Hawaiian island called _ is the breeding ground for 90% of an ancient sea turtle species. It is also an important breeding ground for birds and the monk seal.

April 21: Chapter 20

Each student was assigned one section of the chapter. After reading the section and noting the major points, students shared this information with their peers.
(1) Equatorial and Tropical Rain Forest – page 631-2
(2) Equatorial and Tropical Rain Forest – page 633-4
(3) Deforestation of the Tropics – page 634-6
(4) Tropical Seasonal Forest and Scrub – page 636
(5) Tropical Savanna – page 636-9
(6) Biodiversity and Biosphere Reserves – page 637-639
(7) Midlatitude Broadleaf and Mixed Forest – page 640-1
(8) Needleleaf Forest and Montane Forest – page 641
(9) Temperate Rain Forest – page 642
(10) Mediterranean Shrubland – page 642-3
(11) Midlatitude Grasslands – page 643-4
(12) Deserts – page 644-6
(13) Arctic and Alpine Tundra – page 646
(14) ANWR Faces Threats – page 647

Review: Match the Koppen Climate Classification with the Biome Type (climate classifications may be used more than once)
Koppen Climate Classification:
a. Af        b. Am        c. Aw    d. BSh        e. BSk        f. BWh    g. BWk        h. Cfa        i. Cfc    j. Csa        k. Dfb    l. ET

(1) ____ Equatorial and Tropical Rain Forest    (2) ____ Tropical Seasonal Forest and Scrub    (3) ____ Tropical Savanna    (4) ____ Midlatitude Broadleaf and Mixed Forest    (5) ____ Needleleaf Forest and Montana Forest
(6) ____ Temperate Rain Forest    (7) ____ Mediterranean Shrubland    (8) ____ Midlatitude Grasslands
(9) ____ Warm Desert and Semidesert    (10)____ Cold Desert and Semidesert    (11)____ Arctic and Alpine Tundra

(12) Alien species are also known as _, or _ species. (13) While over 30,000 plant species have edible parts, just three grains fulfill about 50% of the human population’s food demands. Two of the three grains are _ and _.(14)  The U.S. has 90 biosphere reserves (coordinated by UNESCO). Name one: _ (15) The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) will probably be opened up to oil exploration. The estimated oil reserve is 3.2 billion barrels. If we used only this oil, how long would it last?_

Other points to remember:
1. More than half of the Earth's original rain forest is gone. At the present rate of destruction, these forests will be completely gone by 2050.
2. The Biosphere Reserve program is coordinated by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization). Of the 300 total sites in the world, 90 are in the U.S.
3. The needleleaf forest is called the boreal forest or (in Russia) the taiga.
4. Montane forests are mountain forests.
5. The Tongass, along the west coast of North America, is the world's largest temperate rain forest.
6. The unwanted expansion of the desert biome is known as desertification.
7. ANWR (Arctic National Wildlife Refuse) is on Alaska's North Slope. The U.S. uses 20 million barrels a day, so the estimated 3.2 billion barrel reserve would last only 5 months.

April 26: Presentations by students

April 28: Chapter 21

Assessing environmental impact:
Trying to assess environmental impact, the ecological footprint is often employed as an educational tool. The countries with the largest per capita "footprint" are US (24 acres per person), followed by Australia (22 acres), Canada (19), New Zealand (18.8), Iceland (18), and Singapore (17.8). The countries whose people have the smallest ecological footprint are Ethopia, India, and Pakistan (2 acres) and Bangladesh (1.2 acres). The world average is 6.9 acres. If we divide the earth's biologically productive lands by the population of 6.3 billion, there are about 4.5 acres per person. From these figures, we see that we are not living sustainably.

Carrying capacity is another tool used to talk about impact. Carrying capacity can be applied to non-human populations, but not very well to humans. For humans, carrying capacity varies depending upon the level of material well-being; the distribution of material well-being; the types of technologies employed; the domestic and international political institutions; the economic arrangements; the demographic arrangements; the physical, chemical, and biological conditions that are acceptable; whether variability or stability is the goal; carrying capacity for how long; and the fashions, tastes, and values of the people.

A third tool often used to discuss environmental impact is often just referred to as IPAT, which is translated as I (environmental impact) is a function of P (population), A (affluence), T (technology) and also S (social and cultural factors) and G (government).

Population: The world's population is currently 6.4 billion. It took 200,000 years for the human population to reach 1 billion. Since 1960, a billion people are being added to the population each 13 or 14 years. However, the rate at which people are being added is now slowing down. The world's population may be about 8.9 billion by 2050, much lower than estimates made only a few years ago. The world's most populous country is China (1.3 billion), followed by India (1.1 billion), and then the USA (290 million). Because of population controls, China's total fertility rate (the average number of babies born to a woman during her lifetime) is down to 1.8, while India's is much higher than that. For that reason, India's population is growing more quickly. India will soon be the world's most populous country.

Affluence: Affluence is basically consumption. Most of the people in the world live in poor countries (80% of the population), but most of the world's consumption occurs in rich countries (20% of the population). In the 1950s, the love affair with the car took hold. While homes were not nearly so large as they are today, we felt richer then. In 1958, 4% had dishwasher; 50% do now. Fewer than one percent had a color TV; 97% do now. In 1950, the average home was 1100 square feet; now garages are 900 square feet. Things that used to be luxury items are now standard features (e.g., air conditioning in cars). We fly 25 times as much as in the 1950s. On average, Americans shop 6 hours a week. By 1987, there were more shopping malls than high schools in the U.S. Most purchases are on impulse.1957 was apparently the peak year for happiness. In the most prosperous countries, people are the most stressed. By the time a young person is 20 years old, he/she has likely seen a billion commercials. Two-thirds of the space in newspapers and 40% of the mail are advertisements. One billion dollars is spent annually on billboards. We've turned citizens into consumers. Marketing people are attempting to hook children at an early age. Between 1980 and 1995, advertisements targeting children went from one million dollars to one billion dollars. Many students watch Channel One at school - and so they watch advertisements. In some places, poorly funded schools have taken to selling ad space on the sides of buses. For many, self-esteem is only through possessions. A rash of bankruptcies is attributed to credit card debt. In 90% of divorces, money is part of the problem. U.S. consumers hold over one billion credit cards, with one trillion dollars in non-mortgage debt. In the US, we save 4% of our earnings (on average), while the average Japanese saves 60%.

Technology: Technologies can be environmentally beneficial, negative, or can work both ways. Solar and wind technologies have great potential for ecological good. Our current transportation system, of private gas-guzzling automobiles, high-speed highways, and tractor trailers, is ecologically damaging.

Oil Spills:
When we think of oil spills, in the U.S. we usually think of the Exxon Valdez (although it was by no means the largest spill). Oil was discovered in 1967 in Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. In 1974, construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline was authorized by Congress. In 1977, the first tanker of Alaska oil set sail. In March, 1989, the Exxon Valdez, piloted by the drunk Joseph Hazelwood, struck rocks in Prince William Sound and, over a 13 hour period, dumped 11 million gallons of oil into the sound. Many animals were killed and the clean-up was ill-conceived and slow to begin. In the aftermath, spill drills in the Pacific Northwest became routine. New tankers must now be double hull. Surprisingly, oil from oil spills accounts for only about 5% of the oil that gets into our oceans every years. The estimates are as follows: 37 million gallons per year from oil spills; 15 million from offshore drilling; 62 million from natural seeps; 92 million from air pollution that settles; 137 million from routine boat maintenance; and 363 million (51% of the total) from regular people changing their oil and improperly disposing of it.

Environmental Schools of Thought (some examples):
Gaia hypothesis: James Lovelock, early 1970s, postulated that earth is a superorganism; as an organism, the earth will do whatever it needs to do to survive; if something (say, humans) disrupt it and cause it problems, then they’ll have to go.

Deep ecology: Arne Naess in 1973; advocates an ecocentric perspective rather than an anthropocentric one; bverything has a right to be here and to be appreciated whether that thing (flora, fauna, inanimate object) serves human needs or not.

Sociobiology/authoritarian ecology: Sometimes called Social Darwinism (but should be called Social Spencerianism – b/c Darwin talked about natural selection, not survival of the fittest); idea here is that survival of the fittest is key to environmental protection; the reasoning goes, as in “Lifeboat Ethics” (Garrett Hardin) that there’s just not enough room for all of us; some will have to be pushed off the lifeboat – starve, etc. That’s just the way it is.

US Environmentalism:
First era of environmentalism in US (1872 – 1929):
In 1872: Yellowstone National Park (2.2 million acres in Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana) was established.
In 1891: the first U.S. forest reserves.
In 1892: the Sierra Club, established by John Muir (a preservationist).
During this period (from about 1872 to 1929), the emphasis was on reserving public lands for public purposes, and creating the government agencies to protect and manage the land.
Keep in mind that these were countervailing forces, as the Civil War was fought from 1861 to 1865, the Industrial Revolution was going strong, the Homestead Act encouraged "taming" the west, the railroads opened up the land, and the Indians were killed/subdued.

2nd Era of US Environmentalism (1929 – 1962):
the dust bowl
Starting during the Depression, the focus shifted from public to private; now the Civilian Conservation Corps, Soil Conservation Service, and others helped individual farmers and others impacted by the Dust Bowl and other situations.
Aldo Leopold, the author of the 1949 A Sand County Almanac, had one foot in the second era and one in the third.

3rd Era of US Environmentalism (1962 to present):
The modern environmental movement) was sparked by Rachel Carson, a marine biologist who wrote the 1962 Silent
Spring. The book focused on pesticide use and its dangerous impact on species (especially birds).
NEPA (the National Environmental Policy Act) was signed into law on January 1, 1970; it establishes the US's basic environmental principles: that we, the citizens, are trustees of the environment for future generations; that Americans have a right to a healthy environment - and this right extends to every American; that US policy is committed to multi-use (conservation) and also preservation of historic, cultural, and national treasures; and that we commit to using the most efficient technology, wisely. This was also the beginning of the decade of US environmental legislation, including passage of: Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (1972), Endangered Species Act (1973), Safe Drinking Water Act (1974), Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976), Clean Water Act (1977), Comprehensive Emergency Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, known as Superfund (1980), and others.

International Environmentalism
1972: first international environmental conference, held in Stockholm, Sweden
1987: publication of Our Common Future, from which the term "sustainable development" came.
1992: international environmental conference in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. At that conference, the Framework Convention on Climate Change was signed.
1997: Kyoto negotiations to address the issue of global warming.
February, 2005: With the ratification of Russia, the Kyoto Protocol (on global warming) went into effect.

On your test, you will see:
25% of the questions will be verbatim from Test 1
25% of the questions will be verbatim from Test 2
50% of the questions will be from the new material.

End of material for test 3.