GEO 160: Lands and Peoples of the Non-Western World
Fall, 2004

August 25: (1) We began the course by taking a sample of the National Geographic's geographic literacy survey. On average, 18-24 year old Americans corrected identified the correct location of only 3.1 of the 11 countries on the survey (Israel, Russia, Afghanistan, India, Iran, Pakistan, Iraq, China, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, and Japan).
(2) After taking the roll, copies of the syllabus were distributed. We talked about what "non-western" means. What is the west and the non-west is a bit problematic, but has to do with the legacy upon which the civilization was built. The western countries' civilizations are built upon the ideas of the ancient Greeks and Romans. The non-western countries' civilizations are built upon the ideas of other ancient peoples. Many of the non-western countries have been greatly influenced by western civilizations, but are still considered non-western because of the African, Asian, Amerindian, etc. people and their non-western legacy. The "west" and "non-west" dichotomy is sometimes depicted as: west/non-west ... have/have not; long life expectancy/shorter life expectancy; rich/poor; developed/developing; stable population/rising population; north/south; occidental/oriental; minority world/majority world; MDC (more developed country)/LDC (less developed country; core/periphery. There are some problems with this dichotomy, for example, Japan (a non-western country) does not fit the category. It is a rich, developed country, with a stable population and long life expectancy.

August 30: Homework: First understand what globalization is. Then explain how each of the key terms on page 45 is tied to globalization. Due Wednesday.

There are good reasons for couples in the non-western world to have many children: cultural/religious reasons, high death rate of babies, need agricultural help from children, lack of access to contraception, and so on. While most population increase is occurring in the non-western countries, western countries also are a tremendous part of the drain on resources: the problem? Affluence/consumption. So, population issues revolve around numbers AND level of consumption.

Thomas Malthus, in 1798, warned of an impending population crash. He thought that food supply would continue to increase arithmetically, but that population would increase exponentially. That never really occurred. In 2004, there is plenty of food, however, many times it isn't distributed equitably, and people starve. War, drought/floods, and other local circumstances can also cause acute, usually short-term shortages.

The world's population is currently 6.3 billion, with the most populous countries: China, with 1.3 billion; India, with 1.1 billion; USA, with 290 million.

From the Population Reference Bureau:
* A 1-inch stack of U.S. paper currency contains 233 bills. If you had a million dollars in 1000-dollar bills, the stack would be 4.3 inches high. If you had a billion dollars in 1000-dollar bills, your pile of money would reach 357 feet – about the length of a football field.
* You had lived a million seconds when you were 11.6 days old. You won’t be a billion seconds old until you are 31.7 years of age.
* The supersonic airplane, the Concorde, could theoretically circle the globe in only 18.5 hours at its cruising spped of 1340 miles per hour. It would take 31 days for a passenger to journey a million miles on the Concorde, while a trip of a billion miles would last 85 years.

We watched a 1999 documentary entitled "Population Six Billion." Following are the notes I took as we watched the film. All babies born on this planet, whether born into affluence or poverty, deserve health care, education, and the right to be respected as human beings. Unfortunately, 1/3 of all children are born into severe poverty. Half of those are born where conflict is disrupting lives. About 130 million children will receive no education and the problem is worse for girls than boys. Of the world's one billion illiterate people, 2/3 are female. Other problems for females include genital mutilation, pregnancy during teen years, and maternal mortality. Every minute, a woman dies in childbirth or as the result of an unsafe abortion. The population is also putting stress on the natural world; every year, the world loses about 27,000 species of plants and animals. This is the greatest extinction period in 65 million years (when the dinosaurs became extinct). The demand for water is outstripping the supply. Per capita food production is on the decline in many countries. Nearly half of food is produced on irrigated land; food stocks are at a 20 year low. One billion people are unemployed or earn less than a living wage. Kofi Annan, Secretary General of the United Nations, said that population impacts all of us, whether rich or poor. Populations in the western countries are stable or declining, but many countries in Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa will see population doubling or tripling by 2050.
Case Studies:
1. Vietnam: In a community in northern Vietnam, there is no electricity, no running water, work in the rice paddies is by hand. In one lodge (home), four generations live together. In this part of Vietnam, many are malnourished. Food production is not keeping up with population growth. In 1996, this area began getting assistance from a government health worker. She comes and provides health care and contraceptives. The 74 year old matriarch said that she was pregnant 10 times - the first time when she was 14 and the last when she was 42. Today, the younger women don't want so many children. The health worker says that a woman's right to choose the number of children is her greatest power. We then travel to Hanoi. In 1986, after restrictions on trade and money were eased, many migrated to Hanoi hoping for more opportunities. Few found these opportunities. Instead, it is very overcrowded and many live in poverty. One elderly man, who retired from the transportation department, has no retirement and no social security. He and his wife sell sandwiches to get by. In the 1960s, the Vietnamese government stated that the population increase was destabilizing. By state decree, families were allowed no more than two children. Because of international criticism, these decrees were rescinded. Today, Vietnamese see slogans such as "oral contraception is the key to happiness." Since 1960, the infant mortality rate has declined 25% but maternal mortality is still high. About 3000 women die each year in childbirth. Boys are considered large blessings while girls are only small blessings. The fertility rate has declined by half in 40 years, in large part because of abortions. There are about 1 million abortions in Vietnam each year (300,000 on teenage girls) and since the cost is low ($2) and there are many clinics, it is the defacto birth control method. In fact, about 1/3 of the females lack access to birth control. And, while there is no sex education in schools, the ignorance and sexual activity of young Vietnamese has made them vulnerable to pregnancy and disease. Now some reproductive health discussion groups are being hosted in schools; the attendance is high. A new radio call-in show, called "Window on Love," is also answering questions. Some clinics in Hanoi are now open to single people. One aspiring architect is worried that her boyfriend uses drugs and may transmit HIV to her. The clinic staff give her the needed information to make choices.
2. Uganda: Throughout the world, there are 500 million chronically ill people; most of them are in developing countries. As of 1999, there were 40 million cases of HIV/AIDS. This pandemic has struck Sub-Saharan Africa particularly hard. In Uganda, 25% of all adults are HIV+. There are many households headed either by orphans or grandparents. One grandmother had already lost 5 of her 7 children to AIDS. An Anglican priest, who works with HIV/AIDS programs, also found out that he is HIV+ (after his wife died in 1991). Some influential Ugandans began to argue that talking about sex is not immoral - that it must be discussed. There is now a National Reproduction Health Curriculum, approved by the government. The government has approved education for the first 4 children in each family; however, many families have 7 or so children. These children are often unable to go to school. We then hear from a Catholic priest who says there are two trains of thought about child-bearing in Catholicism: (a) God gives you children and you should be able to provide for them and (b) God gives you children, but you have the freedom to plan your own future. With 50 ethnic groups in the country, traditions are often at odds with the reality. In some areas, older women practice intergenerational counseling as a way of preparing youths for adult relationships. Still, Uganda's fertility rate is one of the world's highest. About 2/3 live below the poverty line and cannot afford hospital care. Delivery is often by midwives. Today, in 7 of 45 districts, TBAs (traditional birth attendants) are linked by radio to a clinic. If a problem arises, the mother can be taken to a hospital. In these areas, maternal mortality is down by half. In another area (Sabinyi), female genital mutilation (or circumcision) is the issue; there are over 100 million woman who have endured this procedure around the world. It causes pain, bleeding, infection (sometimes), and scarring. One mother said she had two babies at home before the circumcision, but the other deliveries were very painful and she had to go to the hospital. A female government official declined to have the procedure, asking why she should. Traditions are hard to set aside, however, and older men are especially resistant to change. Some of the elders are beginning to change their minds.
3. Mexico: Urbanization is an issue exemplified by Mexico City. Today, there are 3 times as many city dwellers as in 1950. Three billion people live in cities (half the world's population). By 2050, 6 billion will live in cities. Mexico City is a megacity of 18 million. There is great affluence and cutting-edge architect and then there is unbelievable poverty. We saw the garbage dwellers who live near the dump and eke their livelihoods from collecting discarded materials. About 80% of Mexicans live in poverty and 30% live in extreme poverty. We then saw an illegal squatter settlement of 400 families. They are using land on the outskirts of Mexico City. The government is not doing much for them, but the community is providing itself with electricity, running water, and other necessities. The government did build a new school next to the garbage dump and the children go there, in spite of the stink. At school, children are provided with pretty explicit sex education. During Mexico's better economic times, population growth was encouraged. In the 1970s, the problems were recognized. In 1950, one of every 100 humans was a Mexican. Today, one of every 60 humans is a Mexican. Still, progress has been made. A generation ago, the average mother had 7 children; today, she has 2.5. Because of so many young people, however, the population is continuing to grow at 1 million per year. In very rural areas, the number of babies born is still pretty high (about 6) and there is little access to contraceptives. Some get contraceptives at a milk stand. We then travel 1000 miles north, to the border city of Cuidad Juarez. This maquiladora city has one of the country's highest rates of unemployment, poverty, and population growth. People typically earn less than $30 per week. Living conditions are horrid. Still, many migrate to Cuidad Juarez, where they encounter airborne toxins, raw sewage, and other environmental problems. The National Health System is overwhelmed and some seek health care through charitable organizations. One of the big problems is premature babies. The bottom line is that poverty affects women more than anyone. Women (and their children) must be helped - must be empowered - if conditions are to improve. Women need improved prospects, such as micro-loans. We saw two women who have succeeded (one in clothing and one in grocery sales) as a result of micro-loans. A little investment goes a long way. One woman asked why more is not being done? In developing countries, the conditions are desperate: high national debt, HIV/AIDS, and conflict. Still, the international community met in 1994 to develop a new population strategy. The women's groups, population groups, environmental groups, and human rights groups all came. A 20-year plan of action was developed: guaranteed reproductive health care by 2050, a 3/4 reduction in maternal mortality, a longer life expectancy, and a reduced infant mortality rate. The premise underlying this plan of action was that the realization of smaller families will be the result of a woman have free choice. The cost of achieving these goals was estimated at $17 billion per year, with $5.7 billion per year of this amount to come from the rich (mostly western) countries. Unfortunately, the amount for 1997-1999 was only about $2 billion per year (far short of the $5.7 commitment).

In class exercise: Students were given a piece of scrap paper and were asked to list the places that we saw in the documentary and write down the population issues encountered in each.

September 1:
Population:
Total fertility rate: the average number of children a mother has during her life. Replacement rate is 2.1.

Infant mortality rate: the most important single demographic statistic; the number of babies per 1000 born who do not live to their first birthday. Highest rates are in countries with war or other serious problems.

Crude birth rate: the number of births per 1000 population. If someone says that a country has a life expectancy of 75 years, this means that babies born today will, on average, live 75 years.

Crude death rate: the number of deaths per 1000 population.

Annual rate of natural increase: the number of births/1000 minus the number of deaths/1000, converted to a percentage.

Doubling rate: the length of time it takes for a place to double its population. If the annual rate of natural increase is steady from year to year, you can closely approximate the length of time by dividing 70 (the constant) by the annual rate of natural increase. World's birth rate is 22. World's death rate is 9. World's annual rate of natural increase is 1.3%. World's doubling rate (if the 1.3% is maintained) is 54 years. If that happens (not likely), the world's population will be 12.6 billion in 2058.

Examples from the 2004 World Population Data Sheet (Population Reference Bureau)
U.S.     population = 294 M; birth rate = 14; Death rate = 8; increase at .6%; double 70/.6 = 117 years
Iraq    population = 26 M; Birth rate = 36; Death rate = 9; 2.7%; 70/2.7 = 26 years
Russia    population = 144 M; Birth rate = 10; Death rate = 17; .7%; 70/.7 = 100 years to half

Population pyramid: graphs showing the number of males and females in each age group.

Demographic transition: A model based upon Europe's experience. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, both birth rate and death rate were high. Then, with some improved public health measures, the death rate began to decline. The population exploded. Then, with more urbanization, options for women, and education, birth rate began to drop. Today, birth rate and death rate are again low.

Globalization
Globalization is important because underlies most geographic issues.
Characteristics include:
•    plethora of goods/services;
•    international workers;
•    global communications;
•    global transport;
•    TNCs; (sweatshops)
•    free flow of money around globe;
•    trade agreements;
•    market economies replace state-controlled economies;
•    privatization of formerly government services.

Students gathered in groups of 4 and discussed how (if) globalization ties to each of the key terms. The definitions of the key terms follow:

areal differentiation – geographic description and explanation of spatial differences on Earth’s surface; this includes physical as well as human patterns

areal integration – geographic description and explanation of how places, landscapes, and regions are connected, interactive, and integrated with each other

asymmetrical warfare – describes the differences between a powerful country’s military technology/strategy and the lower level technology/guerilla tactics used by terrorist organizations and insurgent groups

bubble economy – highly inflated economy that cannot be sustained. Bubble economies usually result from rapid influx of international capital into a developing country

centrifugal forces – cultural and political forces, such as linguistic minorities, separatists, and fringe groups, that pull away from and weaken an existing nation-state

centripetal forces – cultural and political forces, such as a shared sense of history, a centralized economic structure, and the need for military security, that promote political unity in a nation-state

colonialism – formal, established (mainly historical) rule over local peoples by a larger imperialist government for the expansion of political and economic empire

core-periphery model – the US, Canada, western Europe, and Japan constitute the global economic core of the north, while most of the areas to the south make up a less-developed global periphery.

cultural imperialism – active promotion of one cultural system over another, such as the implantation of a new language, school system, or bureaucracy. Historically, this has been primarily associated with European colonialism.

cultural landscape – primarily the visible and tangible expression of human settlement (house architecture, street patterns, field form, etc) but also includes the intangible, value-laden aspects of a particular place and its association with a group of people

cultural nationalism – process of protecting, either formally (with laws) or informally (with social values), the primacy of a certain cultural system against influences (real or imagined) from another culture

cultural syncretism (hybridization) – blending of two or more cultures, which produces a synergistic third culture that exhibits traits from all cultural parents

culture – learned and shared behavior by a group of people empowering them with a distinct “way of life”; it includes both material (technology, tools, etc) and immaterial (speech, religion, values, etc) components

decolonialization – process of a former colony’s gaining (or regaining) independence over its territory and establishing (or reestablishing) an independent government

demographic transition – four-stage model of population change derived from the historical decline of the natural rate of increase as a population becomes increasingly urbanized through industrialization and economic development

economic convergence – notion that globalization will result in the world’s poorer countries gradually catching up with more advanced economies.

economic growth rate – the annual rate of expansion for GNI (gross national income)

ethnic religion – religion closely identified with a specific ethnic or tribal group, often to the point of assuming the role of the major defining characteristics of that group. Normally, ethnic religions do not actively seek new converts

ethnographic boundaries – state and national boundaries that are drawn to follow distinct differences in cultural traits, such as religion, language, or ethnic identity

geometric boundaries – boundaries of convenience drawn along lines of latitude or longitude without consideration for cultural or ethnic differences in an area

globalization – increasing interconnectedness of people and places throughout the world through converging processes of economic, political, and cultural change

gross national income (GNI) – value of all final goods and services produced within a country’s borders (gross domestic product, or GDP) plus the net income from abroad (formerly referred to as gross national product, or GNP)

gross national income per capita – the figure that results from dividing a country’s GNI by the total population

lingua franca – agreed-upon common language to facilitate communication on specific topics such as international business, politics, sports, or entertainment

nation-state – relatively homogeneous cultural group (a nation) with its own political territory (the state)

natural increase – annual growth rate for a country or region as a percentage increase

overurbanization – process in which the rapid growth of a city, most often because of in-migration, exceeds the city’s ability to provide jobs, housing, water, sewers, and transportation

purchasing power parity – method of reducing the influence of inflated currency rates by adjusting a local currency to a composite baseline of one U.S. dollar based upon its ability to purchase a standardized “market basket” of goods

region – making sense of the world by compressing and synthesizing vast amounts of information into spatial categories based on similar traits; the resulting areal units are regions

squatter settlements – makeshift housing on land not legally owned or rented by urban migrants, usually in unoccupied open spaces within or on the outskirts of a rapidly growing city

sustainable development – vision of economic change seeking a balance with environmental protection and social equity so that the short-term needs of contemporary society do not compromise needs of future generations. The operational scale of sustainable development is local rather than global

sweatshop – crude factories in which workers sew clothing, assemble sneakers, stitch together soccer balls, or perform similar labor-intensive tasks for low wages

total fertility rate – average number of children who will be borne by women of a hypothetical, yet statistically valid, population, such as that of a specific cultural group or within a particular country. Demographers consider TFR a more reliable indicator of population change than crude birthrate

transnational corporation (transnational firm) – firms and corporations that, although they may be chartered and have headquarters in one specific country, do international business through an array of global subsidiaries

universalizing religion – a religion, usually with an active missionary program, that appeals to a large group of people regardless of local culture and conditions. Christianity and Islam both have strong universalizing components. This contrasts with ethnic religions

urban form – physical arrangement or landscape of the city, made up of building architecture and style, street patterns, open spaces, housing types, and other features

urban primacy – a country in which a disproportionately large city, such as London, New York, or Bangkok, dominates the urban system and is the center of economic, political, and cultural life

urban structure – distribution and pattern of land use, such as commercial, residential, or manufacturing, within the city. Often, commonalities give rise to models of urban structure

urbanized population – that percentage of a country’s population living in settlements characterized as cities. Usually, high rates of urbanization are associated with higher levels of industrialization and economic development, since these activities are usually found in and around cities. Conversely, lower urbanized populations (less than 50%) are characteristic of developing countries

September 8:

Chapter 2: A number of the topics in Chapter 2 are connected with the Non-Western World. Agriculture, upon which millions depend, is one of those important connections. Many in the Non-Western world practice various forms of subsistence agriculture: a method that works well with low density populations is slash and burn (also known as milpa and swidden; this involved burning vegetable off a patch and, with the ash as a fertilizer, using the land for several years before moving on to another patch); and a method that worked well with high density populations - the Chinampas (pieces of land reclaimed from the shallow lakes that used to cover the Valley of Mexico, where Mexico City stands today; the people of Mexico City were nourished by food grown on the chinampas for centuries). In the 20th century, agriculture became increasingly industrialized. In the 1960s, the Green Revolution (an industrial agricultural regimen) was introduced to South Asia and Southeast Asia and elsewhere. News seeds, hailed as high yield were introduced. The seeds were more accurately high response as they required water (irrigation), artificial nutrients (synthetic fertilizers), pest abatement (synthetic pesticides). Being able to afford these inputs meant that wealthier farmers were the ones would used the Green Revolution seeds. Indeed, their yields did increase. They bought tractors, planted monocultures, expanded their lands, and go hooked into the energy treadmill. Green Revolution came to central India, where one finds the rich black soils and rivers, such as the Narmada. In 1970, Union Carbide built a pesticide plant in Bhopal, a city of 800,000. In 1978, the company decided to store methyl isocyanate (MIS) on site. On December 3, 1984, the accident occurred when MIS dripped into a tank of water. MIS, an extremely toxic chemical, is highly reactive, highly flammable, and has a low boiling point. It reacted with the water, producing heat. The gas exploded out of the tank, killing 3500-7500, seriously injuring 150,000-500,000, and permanently disabling 25,000. The primary cause of death was pulmonary edema (fluid in the lungs) and, secondarily, from bronchitis and pneumonia. At sub-lethal concentrations, MIS burns the eyes
and skin, irritates the respiratory system, causes reproductive harm (stillbirths, spontaneous abortions, suppression of lactation), nausea, gastritis, sweating, fever, chills, liver damage, and kidney damage. To top it off, Union Carbide had no emergency response plan. The poor people who lived around the plant had no idea what was produced at the plant. Union Carbide had no warning system to tell the people to evacuate. On January 20, 2002, Bhopal survivors demanded that Dow (the company that bought Union Carbide) provide clean drinking water and other services to families harmed by the accident. They claim increases in cancer, tuberculosis, and mental retardation as a result of the MIS exposure. Some money was distributed (from a total of $470 million). As of July 19, 2004 (almost 20 years later), India’s Supreme Court has directed $327.5 million (this is the rest of the $470 million that was never distributed) to be distributed among over 500,000 victims and dependents. So, while the Green Revolution did have positive results (higher grain yields), it also had/has some very negative results.

Students watched a 45 minute film entitled "Toxic Legacies: Playing with Poison," narrated by David Suzuki. Elizabeth Gillette, a nurse turned PhD Anthropologist studied children in the Yaqui Valley of Sonora (a state in Mexico). In the valley, 31,000 hectares have been converted to industrialized production of fruits and vegetables for export to the U.S. Many pesticides are used on the cropland and in the homes. The people of the foothills share the same culture with those in the valley, but without the pesticide load found in the valley. In 1994, when she began her study, she found that the valley children had hand-eye coordination, memory, and other neurological problems not experienced by the foothills children. Most shockingly, the valley children were unable to conceptualize a human figure and when asked to draw one, scribbled lines and curves that in no way resembled a human. In 1998, she published her findings in the peer-reviewed journal "Environmental Health Perspectives." In 1990, her husband, investigating alligators in Lake Apopka (Florida) found malformations in baby alligators, primarily affecting sex organs. A few years prior to the study, organochlorine pesticides had accidentally been spilled into the lake. We then learn that organophosphates were originally developed during WWI as nerve gas. Pesticides generally act by attacking the nervous system. Moving back to the Yaqui Valley, in 2000, a medical team visited to follow-up Dr. Gillette's work. They found early breast development (at about 7 years of age) among the valley children, while foothills children developed breasts at the normal age of 12 years. The doctors suggested that the pesticides might be acting like estrogens (same as in the baby alligators). They visited a pesticide dump and determined that most of the pesticides used in Mexico are also still being used in the U.S. and Canada. A possible result of exposure to pesticide mixtures is Parkinson's disease. Leukemia is also possibly linked to pesticide exposure. It is also a fact that one of six children in the U.S. today suffers from autism, ADD, dyslexia, or some other neurological problem. The exposure can come from household use, agricultural use, and/or from urban spraying to control pests (such as spraying malathion to kill mosquitoes). Dursban and diazinone are being phased out in the U.S. because of their known dangers to children, but, overall, household use of pesticides is increasing. Because of these concerns, Halifax, Nova Scotia has outlawed pesticide use for cosmetic purposes. It is the first major city in North America to do so; the law became effective in 2003. Review questions (see narrative above): (1) Elizabeth Gillette studied two Mexican communities in the _ Valley, one of which used synthetic pesticides and the other did not. (2) In terms of the children, what did she find in the course of her study?_ (3) In Lake _, Florida, alligators were found to have sexual malformations, a few years after a pesticide spill. (4) When a medical team visited the Mexican communities in August 2000, they noted early onset of puberty among the community’s children. They suggested that pesticides may be acting like _, triggering early breast development. (5) In the United States, many children are exposed to organophosphate pesticides. In the program, the narrator raised the question of whether these exposures might be related to high incidence of _.
6. The first major city in North American to ban pesticides for cosmetic use was _. (7) How is this film related to the Green Revolution?_ (8) How is this film related to economic globalization? _

September 13:

BBC article entitled "Earth Warned on 'Tipping Points'": The world has barely begun to recognize the danger of setting off rapid and irreversible changes in some crucial natural systems, a scientist says. Professor John Schellnhuber says the most important environmental issues for humans are among the least understood. He told a briefing in Sweden that the Asian monsoon was one of the 'tipping points' that could change very quickly. He said a better understanding of the risks was as important as the program to prevent collisions with asteroids. Professor Schellnhuber is research director of the UK's Tyndall Center for Climate Change Research. He was speaking at the EuroScience Forum in Stockholm, at a briefing by the International Geosphere-Biosphere Program entitled Beyond Global Warming: Where on Earth are we Going? Professor Schellnhuber said 12 "hotspots" had been identified so far, areas which acted like massive regulators of the Earth's environment. If these critical regions were subjected to stress, they could trigger large-scale, rapid changes across the entire planet. But not enough was known about them to be able to predict when the limits of tolerance were reached. "We have so far completely underestimated the importance of these locations," he said. "What we do know is that going beyond critical thresholds in these regions could have dramatic consequences for humans and other life forms." One example of a hotspot was the North Atlantic current, the ocean circulation pattern responsible for bringing warmer air to northern Europe, the collapse of which could lead to a very large regional climate shift. Others were the West Antarctic ice sheet, the Sahara desert, and the forests of the Amazon basin. Yet another hotspot, Professor Schellnhuber said, "was the Asian monsoon system. He told BBC News Online: "Modelling has shown that if air pollution and land use change, this could alter the albedo, the reflectivity, of the land. This in turn could weaken or even suppress the monsoon, and there is evidence that several times in the last few years it has in fact been weaker. We're investing too much in things like improving the accuracy of our weather forecasts, while the really vital elements in the Earth's system are the unstable phenomena like the monsoon. We should have a much better understanding of these tipping points, and we have to do everything we can to stop short of triggering these instabilities. That means we have to know where they are, and they've been off the radar screen for far too long. Scientists hav begun to realize that change could be sudden, not gradual - in some cases it could happen within a few decades." Professor Schellnhuber urged a corrdinated global effort to improve understanding and monitoring of Earth's 'Achilles' heels.' He said: "Such an effort is every bit as important as NASA's valuable asteroid-spotting program designed to protect the planet from colllisions. "If we can afford to gaze up at the sky looking for asteroids, we should be able to watch our own planet with as much care."

We then discussed the Koppen climate classification system (in some cases, the landscape has been altered so that the vegetation expected is no longer there). Here is the way the classification works (see your textbook for a map): A (humid equatorial) + f (no dry season -- tropical rainforest) or w (dry winter -- savanna) or m (short dry -- monsoon); B (dry) + S (steppe, semiarid) or W (arid, less than 10" precipitation per year) + h (hot) or k (cold); C (humid temperate) + f (no dry season) or w (dry winter) or s (dry summer -- Mediterranean) + a (hot summer) or b (cool summer) or c (short, cool summer) or d (very cold winter); D (humid continental) + f (no dry season) or w (dry winter)  + a (hot summer) or b (cool summer) or c (short, cool summer) or d (very cold winter); E (cold polar) + F (ice cap) or T (tundra) or M (marine); H (undifferentiated highland). The letters are combined, for example Af, Cfa, BSk, ET. An Af is a tropical rainforest, a Cfa is a temperate place with rain throughout the year and hot summers, BSk is a cold steppe, ET is tundra.

We then proceeded to our first non-western region: Latin America. Latin America is so named because of the "Latins" (Spanish and Portuguese) who conquered it about 500 years ago. The countries are now independent. Latin America is made up of Mexico, Central America, and South America. Reference to "Middle America" includes Mexico and Central America. Following the theme of globalization, we watched a film entitled Guns and Greed. This film was produced to raise awareness of the SOA (School of the Americas). The SOA was established after WWII, originally in Panama. It later moved to Ft. Benning, GA. The US government has trained over 60,000 Latin American police and military. The film begins by noting some of the crimes committed by SOA graduates: the March, 1980 murder of Bishop Romero (2 of the 3 killers were SOA graduates); the December, 1980 murders of four American church women in El Salvador (3 of 5 were SOA graduates); the December, 1980 murder of 900 men, women, and children in El Mozote. The Pentagon confessed that the manual used had provided techniques on torture (this manual has been rewritten). In November, 1999, 12,000 people gathered at Ft. Benning to protest the SOA. One young person stated that "We are not here for ourselves, we are here for others." Some of the protestors carried caskets, others carried crosses. With each name of a victim, the protestors sang out "I am here." If the protestors cross over a particular line on the Ft. Benning base, they are subject to arrest. They can get up to 6 months in prison and/or a $5,000 fine.
A bishop in Mexico was murdered two days after releasing a report on Mexico's human rights violations. In Colombia, 250 military personnel were cited for human rights atrocities; half were SOA-trained. In Chiapas (in southern Mexico), the peasants stood up to the military. Prior to 1994 and the Zapatista rebellion, few had been trained by the SOA. After 1994, at least a thousand have been sent. Eighteen of these have been implicated in human rights violations. This cycle of exploitation began 500 with the Spanish and Portuguese conquistadors. They exploited the riches of the Americas and became very wealthy. Today, the IMF (International Monetary Fund), World Bank, and sweatshops are the new conquistadors. They need the military to protect their wealth. One way to protect the wealth is by busting unions. The corporations' worst nightmare is for young people to begin asking questions about how the clothes they wear are made. From the sweatshops comes the clothes Americans buy. These sweatshops employ children, require overtime, and fire pregnant women. Environmental, social, and human costs are the consequences of cheap clothing. Americans don't really want to hear that our wealth is built on others' poverty.
In 1990, the SOA protests began. The early one was a hunger strike down at Ft. Benning. Then, small groups went to Washington to lobby their Congress people. By 1998, over 7000 had come to protest and over 2000 crossed the line. People protested in front of the Pentagon in May 1999; 60 were arrested for civil disobedience. Other lobbied, asking that their Congress person vote to stop spending on the SOA. One youth stated that the SOA is the military arm of the IMF. The structural adjustment programs (when indebted countries cannot buy their debt, the loan is restructured to insure repayment) force countries to cut back on education and health care. When the poor are hurt, they often protest. The military squelches the protests.
Back at the Ft. Benning protest, 4000 crossed the line in the largest act of civil disobedience since the Vietnam War. We read on the screen that we must work for a new world without greed (the quote comes from Ellacuria, who was killed by a SOA graduate). Some were arrested. At the time of filming, 50 men and women had served over 30 years for protesting the SOA. The SOA was closed and then reopened as the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation.
Critical Thinking Essay #1: Please see syllabus for instructions. Read the following article:
“Slavery Exists Out of Sight in Brazil,” September 5, 2004, Kevin G. Hall of Knight Ridder, http://www.realcities.com/mld/krwashington
In addition, select at least four of the following articles:
“Brazil’s Economy Suddenly Blooms,” September 9, 2004, Kevin G. Hall of Knight Ridder, http://www.realcities.com/mld/krwashington
“Social Ills Make Latin America Susceptible to Authoritarian Rule, U.N. Chief Says,” September 8, 2004, Susana Hayward of Knight Ridder, http://www.realcities.com/mld/krwashington
“Clashes as Chile Marks 1973 Coup,” September 12, 2004, BBC, http://news.bbc.co.uk
“UN Warning Over Haiti’s Militias,” September 10, 2004, BBC, http://news.bbc.co.uk
“Hurricane Sends Oil Prices Higher,” September 13, 2004, BBC, http://news.bbc.co.uk
“Colombia Says Drug Profits May End Soon,” September 10, 2004, USA Today, http://www.usatoday.com
“Colombia’s Oil Pipeline is Paid for in Blood and Dollars,” August 20, 2004, Isabel Hilton of The Guardian, http://www.guardian.co.uk

September 15: Latin America

Table 4.1 (page 142): Most Populous: Brazil (171.8 M): Least Populous: Panama (2.9 M); Most densely populated: El Salvador (788 per square mile); least densely populated: Bolivia (20 per square mile); Highest rate of natural increase: Nicaragua (3%); lowest rate of natural increase: Uruguay (.7%); highest total fertility rate: Guatemala (4.8); lowest total fertility rate: Uruguay and Chile (2.3); highest percentage under 15 years of age: Guatemala (44%); highest percentage over 65 years of age: Uruguay (13%); highest urban level: Uruguay (92%); lowest urban level: Guatemala (39%)

Table 4.2 (page 161): largest economy: Brazil ($730,424 M); smallest economy: Nicaragua ($2,012 M); highest per capita GNI: Argentina ($7,550; $11,940 PPP); lowest per capita GNI: Nicaragua ($410; $2,060 PPP); highest economic growth 1990-1999: Chile (5.6%); lowest economic growth 1990-1999: Venezuela (-.5%)

Table 4.3 (page 170): life expectancy in all countries is greater for females than for males; longest life expectancies: Costa Rica (75 for males and 79 for females); shortest life expectancies: Bolivia (60 for males and 64 for females); in all countries, under 5 mortality declined between 1980 and 1999; highest under 5 mortality: Bolivia (170 in 1980 and 83 in 1999); lowest under 5 mortality: Costa Rica (29 in 1980 and 14 in 1999); the illiteracy rates of females tend to be equal to or higher than that of males, with two exceptions: Uruguay (males=3% and females=2%) and Nicaragua (males=33% and females=30%); Females make up 42% of Uruguay's total labor force (the highest female labor participation in Latin America); the lowest female labor participation is Guatemala (28% of the total work force are women)

Students learned from studying the chapter maps. The following review is based upon that study: (1) Mountains are found in what part of South America? __ (2) Lowlands are found in what part of Brazil? (3) Of the several tectonic plates in the region of Latin America (and its surrounding oceans), the largest is the __ Plate. (4) The __ is a large, elevated plateau between the eastern and western branches of the Andes. (5) A city success in South America is the Brazilian city of __. (6) The __, one of the great natural grasslands of Latin America, is being steadily converted to cropland and pasture. (7) Several countries in Latin America have some Cfa climate, but only the country of __ is entirely Cfa (the same as Kentucky’s climate). (8) There are several very large cities in Latin America. One is Mexico City. Name one of the others: __ (9) Many Latin Americans migrate to North America. There are three other primary destinations outside Latin America for migrants. Name one of the three: __ (10) While many indigenous languages continue to be spoken in pockets across Latin America, the dominant languages of Latin America are __ and __. (11) Most of the countries of Latin America were independent by the year __. (12) Name the Latin American country(ies) that are part of NAFTA (trade block)__ (13) Today, most Latin American coca (for cocaine) is produced in the country of __.(14)The total fertility rate has dropped dramatically in some Latin American countries. In the country of __, the average woman now has over 3 fewer babies than the average woman did in 1970.

September 20:

Latin America, so-called because of the deep influence of the Spanish and Portuguese imperialists/colonizers, includes Mexico, Central America, and South America. Mexico and Central America are sometimes referred to as "Middle America." South America's population is 357 million and Middle America's is nearly 179 million.
The Spanish and Portuguese left their mark (the "legacy of colonialism") on Latin America: (a) while a number of indigenous languages survive, most speak either Spanish (2/3) or Portuguese (1/3). (b) The Spanish and Portuguese brought Catholicism; it is still widely practiced. (c) The land tenure system, of large holdings called latifundia, are still evident in many countries. (d) Most of the people have mixed blood (Indian and European or black). In some countries, such as Argentina, a majority of the people are European. (e) The economic system, legal system, architecture, etc. are legacies of the Spanish and Portuguese.

Because of tectonic plate boundaries, the western coast of Middle America is prone to natural hazards, such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Weather systems also generate hurricanes.

In Middle America, one finds culture hearths, from Mexico City to central Nicaragua. The Maya (or Mayan) culture dates back 3000 years, with the Mayan people found in Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, southern Mexico and the Yucatan peninsula. The Mayans built stone pyramids, were noted for their innovations, enjoyed a zenith between the 3rd and 10th centuries AD, with a population of 2 to 3 million. The Mayan had a theocracy, which means that the political leader and religious leader were one and the same. Another of the notable cultures was the Aztecs. The Aztecs came from the north into Tenochtitlan (a city destroyed by the Spaniards and rebuilt as Mexico City). Teotihuacan, the true urban center in the western hemisphere was the largest city in pre-Columbian times (the population was greater than 125,000). This city, which flourished between the 4th and 7th centuries AD, was just north of today's Mexico City; it is known for its spectacular pyramids.

In the early 1500s, the Spanish conquered Middle America. The indigenous population plummeted, from over 15 million to 2.5 million by the early 1600s. Conquest was accompanied by rapid deforestation, pressure on vegetation from grazing animals, wheat replaced maize (corn), the concentration of Amerindians into newly built towns, exploitation of labor, the slave economy, and extraction of gold and silver.

Mexico: Today, Mexico's population is 104 million, of which about 10% are Amerindians, 9% are European, and the rest are mestizo. Because of economic problems, an estimated 4.5 million Mexicans have crossed the border into the U.S. Mexico has 31 states and a federal district (Mexico City). It is the 3rd most biologically diverse country in the world. The president is Vicente Fox, an ex-Coca Cola executive. In 1800, Mexico was an extremely inequitable country. Fewer than 3000 families owned half the country and most of the people had no land at all. A revolution resulted. Zapata led the 1910 Mexican Revolution. In 1917, the constitution was changed to allow the perpetuation of the ejido (communal lands) system. From 1917 to 1992, about half the land in Mexico was redistributed. In 1992, the Mexican constitution was again amended, this time to allow privatization of land (so now the corporations could come in and sometimes buy or at least lease land). This amendment was in preparation for the implementation of NAFTA. On January 1, 1994, the Zapatistas staged an uprising, focused on the damage that NAFTA would do to the people's lives and livelihood. The Zapatistas come from Chiapas, the poorest Mexican state. It is home to 4.2 million, many of whom are Mayan. About 13% of Chiapas is covered by the Lacandon Forest, the second most biologically diverse forest after the Amazon. On its 2.5 million acres arefound 43,000 species of higher plants and animals. A hundred archaeological sites have been identified and 400,000 people live in the forest. According to a January, 2002 article in the Christian Science Monitor, the Lacandon will disappear in 10-30 years, if the current rate of deforestation continues. Another NAFTA-related issue concerns the assembly plants along the Mexican border. These assembly plants, known as maquiladoras, have been around for awhile (79 of them in 1968), but since NAFTA went into force, there are many (Ciudad Juarez is a major maquiladora city). Over one million Mexicans now work in these assembly plants. Nearly all of the maquiladoras are owned by US corporations, the wages are very low (often less than $20 per week), the workers tend to be young, unmarried women from the rural areas of Mexico. The environmental and safety
regulations are lax. Taxes in Mexico are low. The result is often serious pollution of the land, air, and water. The
pollution is caused by the factories' effluent but also by unplanned worker settlements. Services are poor, schools are inadequate, and family violence is on the rise. Workers live in slum conditions because they are not paid a living wage.

Guatemala: Today Guatemala has the most unequal land tenure in all of Latin America, with less than 2% controlling 65% of farmland. About 27% of the total population is landless. Poverty is worsening, with 63% in poverty in 1981 and 86% in poverty now. About 2/3 of the original forests aregone, the forests could disappear in 25-40 years. To understand how this dire situation arose, one can go back to the 1950s. In the early 1950s, Jacobo Arbenz was elected president. As a socialist, his government gave 100,000 landless families plots of unused land, instituted the country’s 1st social security system, legalized unions, and dramatically expanded public education/literacy. In 1954, a CIA-backed military coup overthrow Arbenz. The coup aimed to protect the interests of the United Fruit Company (a US corporation that owned 550,000 acres in Guatemala; the Guatemalan government had threatened to redistribute 210,000 acres of its land; at the time, United Fruit was the largest landowner and foreign corporation in Guatemala). During the 1950s and 1960s, US Agency for Int’l Deve (AID) provided cheap loans to transform the “backward” Guatemalan economy. The idea was to produce cash crops (sugar, coffee, cotton, bananas). The result was loss of forests, increasing hunger, pesticide contamination.In the 1960s and 1970s, Guatemala experienced a cattle boom. Grazing land increased by 2125%. As cattle export increased, so did unemployment (not very many people are needed to raise cattle). In the 1970s and early 1980s, a war was waged against the people by their own government. 100-200,000 were killed and 40-50,000 "disappeared." Over 400 villages destroyed and death squads terrorized the population. In 1990s, peace talks culminated with a 1996 peace agreement. The peace is uneasy, e.g., in the spring of 1998, Bishop Juan Jose Gerardi was killed after releasing report on the war’s atrocities. Since the 1990s, as the prices of coffee, cotton, beef, sugar went down, lending entities began encouraging Guatemalan farmers to grow snow peas, broccoli, cauliflower, melon, flowers, again for export to the US and Europe. In addition to wide-spread poverty, Guatemala is also experiencing large-scale pesticide contamination, with bird & bee kills.

In South America, inequitable distribution of land (and of wealth in general), along with fragile democracies and the drug trade result in massive instability. Cocaine is of particular concern. Coca is native to the Andes, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia. Students watched a film about Colombia, entitled "The Americas: Get Up, Stand Up." The video begins with a man going from his car to his home surrounded by armed guards. It turns out that he is the leader of one of the guerrilla groups. He says that guns have replaced the state's ability to rule. Armed groups have taken over. The two political parties haven't represented the poor well, so people turn to guerrilla groups as an alternative. We see an army checkpoint, where officers are on the look out for guerrilla sympathizers. Colombia is one of Latin America's oldest democracy, but their history has been very bloody. During the 1950s and 1960s, 100s of 1000s died during La Violencia. In the subsequent power-sharing between the Liberals and Conservatives, many people felt so excluded that they took up arms. The result has been a 30+ year civil war between the state and the guerrillas. The guerrillas are strongest in the eastern Andes of Colombia. We saw some 1989 film footage of the Popular Liberation Army, led by Gutierrez. The leader is building "an army of the people". They go through their military training maneuvers and shout "long live Marxism-Leninism!" The guerrilla groups collect their own taxes and impose their own laws. They are a threat to state sovereignty. The government focuses on the urban areas, and has virtually abandoned the rural people. After years of neglect, many rural people face daily struggles for survival. To survive, many have turned to growing coca. They see coca production as their only option - "the coca leaf is all we have". Many in Peru and Bolivia are also growing coca. Coca production is at the base of an enterprise that is another threat to state sovereignty. Next, we travel to Medellin, the cocaine capital of the world. Cocaine is hugely profitable. As the power of the drug traffickers increased, they went to the unemployed youth in Medellin for their hired guns. As one 16 year old said, "If it's profitable, we do the job." He goes on to say that in Medellin you have to execute your own justice, that the people have no mercy, and so you must have no mercy either. Next we see a man's bloody body. Part of a judge's job in Medellin is to pick up the bodies. There are, on average, 18 murders per day in the city, not all of which are drug-related. Many perceive killing as a solution to even minor conflicts. After the murders, no one will talk for fear of being killed too. So, in only one of every 1000 murders is there an arrest. The "law of silence" prevails. The female judge says that it is very hard to carry out justice and that even the judges are afraid. There is no money to protect them, so when they get threats over the phone, they become fearful. Many feel that drug trafficking has replaced the state. In parts of Medellin, vigilante groups enforce law and order; this is an extreme example of how law and order have broken down. One of the group members says that the state abandoned them, that children were afraid to go outside and today, only two years later, the vigilantes have cleaned things up. The children go to school and the people are outdoors. A resident basically asks the group to kill "Crackhead", a member of a killer gang who escaped from the hospital. The group assures him that he will be killed. In Medellin, few people vote. When the state is replaced with violence, people lose their civic consciousness. The traffickers have amassed fabulous empires, bought political influence, and even funded their own private zoos. There is a booming illegal economy and private armies. Some argued that the drug money would reactivate the sluggish economy, but instead the industrialists have fled. In 1989, Luis Carlos Galon was assassinated as he campaigned. He was mowed down by the drug traffickers. The next day, the President came on TV and told the people that Colombia was at war - at war against terrorism and the drug traffickers. When judges, political candidates, and elected officials are threatened, it is also a threat to state sovereignty. The U.S. got involved. Many in Colombia saw US involvement as a big threat. The $65 million for armed helicopters and guns was money to make war (note: since this film was produced, a great deal more money has been pumped into this operation). Presidents Barco and Bush (the elder) made an agreement that, in return for the aid, traffickers would be extradited to the US for trial. The extradition would be left up to the judges. In response, up to 60 members of the judiciary were murdered within six months. The female judge said that, at every moment, the US made them feel inferior. Instead of helping, the US created a war. We then see burial sites, while hearing a protest song that ends with the plea: "We Want Peace". In 1990, newly elected President Gaviria promised to have a Colombian solution to the problems. Some of the biggest traffickers actually surrendered. There was a call for a new constitution. Constituent groups were represented in the National Constitutional Assmebly. It was an attempt to reestablish the state's role, as the entity in control. Some of the guerrilla groups were encouraged and lay down their arms. For many the prospects were looking up, but the two biggest guerrilla groups were still fighting. The violence has many roots, and peace is contingent upon addressing the fundamental problems in Colombia today. The judge stated that the situation may improve slightly, but she doesn't think that the violence will stop. The population is growing, as is poverty. Many see no option other than that of a beggar or thief. To quote her, "There has been a total breakdown of civilized values." She asks that the US leave Colombia alone; let the US deal with its own problems. The video ends with a soccer game. Colombia wants peace, progress, development, harmony, reconciliation. The people want a real sovereignty for the country. The soccer game symbolizes, if for a fleeting moment, that peace is possible.

Review questions: (1) If you had been able to travel to Guatemala 2000 years ago, you would have encountered a people called the __ (2) The first true urban center in the western hemisphere was the city of __, the ruins of which are near today’s Mexico City. (3) What was one impact of the conquest of Middle America by the Spaniards? (4) In Mexico, the 1910 revolution was led by a man named __. What was the revolution all about?__ (5) On January 1, 1994, NAFTA went into effect. The Zapatistas, from the poor Mexican state of __ staged a rebellion. The rebellion was/is against NAFTA. Briefly explain the connection. (6) Over 1 million Mexican now work in maquiladoras. What are two of the issues associated with work in these assembly plants? (7) The country with the most unequal land tenure in all of Latin America is __. (8) During the 1950s and 1960s, 100s of 1000s died in Colombia during a civil war called __. (9) The Colombian city of __ is the cocaine capital of the world. (10) What is one threat to Colombian sovereignty?__ (11) How is the U.S. involved in Colombia?

Sovereignty … complete independence and self-government

Themes in South America:
•    Inequity of land, wealth, power
•    Inequity in spite of openly elected governments – democracy is fragile and superficial; power not because of public support, but backed by elite alliances (military, rural landowners, wealthy urban entrepreneurs, foreign corporations and governments)
•    Inequities, poor governance result in: corruption, violence, subversion of democratic process; international drug trade – coca for cocaine, poppies for heroin, and marijuana


Cocaine is of particular concern. Coca is native to the Andes, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia. It has traditionally been chewed to fight fatigue, hunger, thirst, the cold. It has been used in religious ceremonies. Commercial production of coca began in the mid-1970s.

Today, Colombia is the world's largest producer of cocaine (it provides 80% of the US supply). About 600,000 acres of tropical forest have been destroyed for growing coca. For a poor farmer, the profits from growing coca are four (or more) times what he could make growing a legal crop (such as avocadoes). The prices for major exports, such as petroleum and coffee, are down, further pushing people into coca production. The standard of living is falling at a result of a structural adjustment program. And then, the US is involved via the "war on drugs" (called Plan Colombia). A broad-spectrum herbicide (which means that it kills all vegetation, not just targeted species) is sprayed from airplanes. A great deal of money has been invested in Plan Colombia, with little to show for it. Another part of the problem in Colombia is the civil war. The roots of the current civil war go way back, but going to the 1940s helps us understand. During those years, there was animosity between the two official parties (the Liberals and Conservatives), the urban labor movement, and the newly organized peasants. In 1948, a populist leader was assassinated. This sparked "La Violencia", during which 300,000 died (from 1948-1953). In 1953, a coup d'etat brought an end to most of the fighting. From 1953-1957 a military government ruled. In 1957, the Liberals and Conservatives signed an agreement to share/rotate power. Power continued to reside with a small elite. The gross inequality in wealth and access to land festered and, in the early 1960s, the Liberals/Conservatives started using the military to repress the poor. In response, and using Fidel Castro as the model, the FARC (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia) guerrilla group was established in 1964. In 1966, another guerrilla group known as ELN was formed. These guerrilla groups are generally on the "left" meaning that they purport to support
the poor people. Colombia's military created and supported paramilitary groups. About 1980, the narcotraffickers began funding their own private militias. Today, the war involves these four combatant groups. In addition, Colombia is an oil-producing country; a 500 mile long pipeline is frequently sabotaged and must be guarded by armed troops. Colombia is in an economic crisis; over half the people live in poverty; malnutrition is rising; unemployment is high.

 Brazil is South America's largest country; ½ area of South America; 5th largest country in the world (in population – 175 M – and in territory). The northern 2/3 is Amazon  and the southern 1/3 is highlands. Brazil has 26 states and federal district of Brasilia (construction began 1956, moved from Rio in 1960). Brazil is very inequitable: richest 10% own 2/3 of land; richest 10% control over ½ country’s wealth; poverty up 50% since 1980; poorest 20% of population lives in most squalid conditions of anywhere on planet; at least ½ of all Brazilians suffer from chronic malnutrition. This is ironic since Brazil is a leading agricultural exporter of soybeans, coffee, citrus (OJ), and meat. The big farms in the south are very mechanized and don’t need much labor. Those who are pushed off the farms generally go either to one of the large, dangerous cities (e.g., Rio de Janeiro or Sao Paulo) or to the Amazon, in particular the states of Para and Rondonia.

Argentina:
Less than 100 years ago, Argentina was more prosperous than Spain, Italy, or even France.
In 1975, 10% in poverty.
After the economic collapse in 2001, over half the population was living in poverty. There’s a small but very wealthy upper class and few in the middle.
The economic collapse was caused by massive privatization, increased government spending (e.g., the 1980s, Falklands war with Britian), lowered wages and increased public debt, hyper-inflation.
Public protests began December 19, 2001. Government put restrictions on people’s access to its own cash/savings. Over the next few months, four presidents.

September 27:

The Caribbean. Homework for Wednesday: Know what the key terms on page 215 mean.

Map on page 178: Belize and the three Guianas are included as part of the Caribbean because of their similar historical experiences. The islands of the Caribbean were colonized by the Europeans. After killing off the indigenous people, Africans were imported as slaves to work on the sugar plantations. Some ran away, creating maroons. Today, most of the islands are independent, but a few are still territories of stronger countries (e.g., Puerto Rico is a U.S. territory; Montserrat is a United Kingdom territory). Economies today are based upon agriculture (sugar, bananas, coffee, tobacco), tourism, off-shore banking (these islands are lucrative in that wealth is taxed very little; a business can incorporate and avoid American - or European - taxes), and maquiladoras. The countries of the Greater Antilles are: Cuba, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Hispanioloa (Hispaniola includes Dominican Republic and Haiti). The small islands are part of the Lesser Antilles.

Be familiar with these maps:
Map 182 – environmental problems
Map 186 – climate
Map 187 – hurricanes
Map 198 – language
Map 201 – colonial history

Points to remember about Haiti, Jamaica, and Cuba (from maps in the chapter):
All three have been denuded of tropical forest. All three have Aw climates (tropical savanna, meaning there's a dry period during the winter). Emigration from all three countries is a reality, given the limited economic opportunities; destinations include the U.S., Canada, French Guiana, and the United Kingdom. Some of the people in all three countries have adopted/adapted African animist religions. The official language of Cuba is Spanish, of Haiti is French, and of Jamaica is English. Cuba and Jamaica are quite reliant upon tourism dollars.

Jamaica has a population of 2.6 M, with a current annual rate of natural increase of 1%. The GNP/capita is $1740. The Arawak Indians called the island Xamayca (land of springs); probably about 60,000 Arawaks lived on Jamaica when the Spaniards arrived in 1494. Although Columbus came to Jamaica, it was his son, Diego Colon, who conquered the island in 1509. The Arawaks were wiped out. The Spanish brought in sugarcane, cotton, and cattle - worked by perhaps 200,000 slaves. The British dislodged the Spanish in the late 1600s. By the late 1800s, Jamaica was home to 800 sugar mills and over 1000 cattle ranches. In 1942, bauxite (for making aluminum) deposits discovered. Bauxite replaced sugar and ALCOA, ALCAN, Reynolds, and Kaiser Aluminum came into Jamaica. Jamaica became independent in 1962. In 1973, Jamaica was the #2 bauxite producer in the world, but while bauxite accounted for half of the exports, the industry employed only 1% of work force. The TNC did not reinvest their earnings in Jamaica. Taxes and export/import duties were extremely low.

Film clip on Jamaica (The Americas). The film begins with the 1962 independence ceremony. Princess Margaret came to turn over sovereignty to Jamaica. A huge celebration ensued, with fireworks lighting up the night sky. The moderator asked how much sovereignty this small island country could really hope to have, in a world of much stronger political powers? The film then cuts to an advertisement from the Jamaica Tourism Board, with pretty music and pretty scenery. We are reminded that the image of a paradise is undercut by the reality of poverty. In 1972, Michael Manley was elected Prime Minister. He campaigned using the slogan "Better Must Come." After his election, he imposed a levy on the bauxite, making the corporations pay 10 times more than before (a bauxite miner says that, in the 1950s, the corporations paid only a shilling for each ton mined). Manley wanted social justice for his people. Bob Marley's "Stand Up for Your Rights" was a song written to celebrate this period of optimism in Jamaica. Street art proclaimed "proud to be Jamaican." Manley improved schools and hospitals and became a local hero, under the banner of democratic socialism. He warned that, under capitalism, money is more important than people. In July, 1975, Manley went to Cuba and met with Fidel Castro. The western countries accepted the levy on bauxite, but rejected his friendly relationship with Castro. More and more, he was cast as a communist. A climate of hostility led to a decline in tourism and investment. As tourism dollars declined and, in the face of world oil crisis, Jamaica went into an economic tailspin. Manley was obliged to sign a loan with the International Monetary Fund. Manley was blamed for the economic woes. In 1980, 800 lives were lost through gang warfare. The government appeared to be no longer in control. The political campaign included Seaga (right wing) calling Manley a communist dog and Manley (left wing) calling Seaga a fascist nincompoop. Seaga won, by a landslide. Not surprisingly, he severed ties with Castro and introduced neoliberal reforms. The affluent benefitted from privatization and deregulation as tourist and investment dollars began to flow. The world was in a recession, however, and with Jamaica's social programs slashed, the poor continued to suffer. In 1989, Manley was re-elected. By this time, he had come to grips with the political realities: he must adopt a capitalist model. He reassured western investors that Jamaica was open for business. For the poor, little changed: dirty water, unaffordable food, poor living conditions. At this point in the film, we meet a Jamaican musician/poet who wants to continue the socialist programs of the 1970s. Manley, though, says that small countries must face their economic constraints. And so it goes. The poor continue to fare poorly, whether the party in power is left or right - and the disillusionment is palpable.

Follow-up note: In 1992, Percival Patterson (a black man) replaced Manley who resigned, following a long period of illness. Patterson has also followed the neoliberal model, privatizing and deregulating industry. His term lasts until 2007.

Review: (1) Three coastal countries in South America are usually included in the Caribbean region, because of their similar histories. Collectively, these three countries are called the _. (2) The Greater Antilles is comprised of the islands of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and _. (3) Much of the tropical forests on the Caribbean Islands has been destroyed. Another pervasive environmental problem is _. (4) Caribbean economies are still based upon agriculture (e.g., sugar, bananas, coffee, and tobacco). Today, many of the islands are also dependent on _ to bring in some money to the islands. (5) Depending on the island, Spanish, French, English, and Dutch is spoken. Name one country in the Caribbean region where French is widely spoken: _ (6) Prior to the European conquest of the islands, an indigenous people called the _ lived on the island of Jamaica. (7) In 1942, _ deposits were discovered in Jamaica. The big aluminum corporations came into Jamaica to exploit this resource. (8) A famous reggae musician from Jamaica,_, wrote many political songs including “Stand Up for Your Rights.” (9) How would you characterize the following Jamaican politicians’ political perspectives:
Manley: _ and Seaga: _

September 29:

Be sure that you know what the following key terms mean:
African diaspora, brain drain, capital leakage, Caribbean Community and Common Market, Caribbean diaspora, Chain migration, Circular migration, Creolization, Free trade zones, Greater Antilles, Houseyards, Hurricanes, Indentured labor, Isolated proximity, Lesser Antilles, Maroons, Mono-crop production, Monroe Doctrine, Neocolonialism, Offshore banking, Plantation America, Remittances, and Rimland.

On the island of Hispaniola are the countries of Dominican Republic and Haiti. The indigenous people called it Quisqueya. Then Columbus landed on the island in December of 1492. After the Spanish conquered the island, most of the indigenous people died. Africans were imported as slaves. In 1697, Spain ceded the island to France. Today, the Spanish influence is dominant in the Dominican Republic, where the people speak Spanish. In Haiti, the people speak a French creole. In 1804, the island was united as the Republic of Haiti. Then, from 1809-1821, the eastern part of the island (today's Dominican Republic) was restored to Spanish control. The island was once again reunited under Haiti from 1822-1843. In 1843, the eastern part of the island revolted and in 1844, the Dominican Republic was formed. In 1865, the Dominican Republic declared its independence. From 1907-1924, the Dominican Republic was a U.S. protectorate. In 1930, Rafael Leonidas Trujillo came into power. He was ruthless and, in May of 1961, he was assassinated. In 1963, the Dominican Republic had its first democratic elections, although the country continued to be plagued with poor governance. Students watched "Mirrors of the Heart" which is part of the Americas video series. The film begins in Santo Domingo, on the dock. Later on in the film, we see fairly narrow streets with cars but also with horses pulling loads. There are palm trees that line the highway leading out of the city. The homes are tidy, and modest in size. The film begins with a little history. Europeans came to the Caribbean islands five centuries ago. The indigenous people died soon thereafter. Africans were imported as slaves. They spoke different languages and had different cultures, but when they arrived on Hispaniola they lost all identity. They were just slaves. Today, the people of Dominican Republic come in many shades. According to Carlos, who is interviewed for the film, the mulatto has a black/white ancestry, but there is a nearly complete denial of blackness. Blacks are treated badly. One distinguished looking black man said that others wouldn't accept it when he described himself as black. Very dark people say they are dark Indian and light mulattos may say they are white or maybe light Indian. At any rate, to have light skin is to "improve the race." Carlos said that he was treated as a black in the U.S.; that the U.S. is very racist. Next door is the Dominican Republic's much disliked neighbor, Haiti. The poverty is obvious in Port-au-Prince, although it is a colorful city with lots of action. A Haitian says that most Haitians are proud of their African heritage. In the 1700s, Haiti was the richest colony in the Caribbean. It was an economy built on slave labor. In 1791, the voodoo priest Bookman called for the slave to rise up against their oppressors. They did and after a protracted conflict, Haiti won its independence from France. According to Carlos, in 1822 Haiti invaded the Dominican Republic. He sees this invasion as the genesis of the Dominicans hatred of the Haitians. We then learn that not only light skin but straight hair ("good" hair) is a symbol of being developed. The people want to look like the people in North America and Europe. In the Dominican Republic, traditionally everything Spanish has been glorified. The ideal was "purity of blood" - to be Spanish, white, and a Catholic. We then meet a Spanish woman whose family has inter-married to maintain their purity of blood. She, however, broke with tradition and married a black man. Her father disapproved. His mother approved. The husband is a physician and so he was helpful when the father got sick. By the time the father died, he no longer referred to the daughter's husband as "the black man" but as Enrico, my daughter's husband. We go back to Haiti and learn that 1 million Haitians have migrated to the Dominican Republic to cut sugarcane. We see a celebration and learn that, during slavery, African culture was forbidden. Only during Easter could they disguise African practices as Christian ones. We go back to the white wife/black husband with the family. They have 3 adorable children. Both the husband and wife state, at different times, that racial barriers must be overcome. The color of one's skin is not what matters.

Cuba: Cuba was colonized by the Spanish. In the late 1800s, they were fighting a war of independence with Spain. The U.S. stepped in, the 1898 Spanish American War. After winning this war, the U.S. felt that they had liberated Cuba, but Cuban felt that they had just switched colonial masters. Many Americans thought of Cuba as an extension of our country. Americans would go to Havana (dubbed "Sin City") for holidays. In 1934, Batista came to power; he was supported by US government - and a supporter of the inequitable status quo, with sugar plantations controlled by US interests. He didn't have the support of the peasants and urban workers. Eventually, he even fell out of U.S. favor. As that happened, in 1953 and 1956, Castro attempted overthrows of the government. On December 31, 1958, Batista fled. In 1959, Castro came to power. The initial reaction to Castro was good. Some college students (the beatniks) emulated him, wearing goatees, berets, and artsy-looking clothing. It looked like he would be a liberal - reform is okay, within certain parameters. Soon after coming into power, Castro confiscated $1 billion in North American property and investments. Castro wanted to end latifundia, limit foreign ownership and establish cooperatives, nationalize public services, enact social legislation (e.g., for education), and industrialize. Peasants and workers supported Castro; elite and the middle class fled. In January 1962, US broke off diplomatic relations. Castro turned to the USSR for loans, markets for Cuban products, defense, technical assistance. In 1961, the U.S. tried to overthrow Castro with an invasion of Cuban exiles: the Bay of Pigs. It was a fiasco. In October 1962, the U.S. realized that launching sites for USSR rockets were being constructed. In 1963, the Cuban Missile Crisis occurred. J. F. Kennedy and N. Khrushchev engaged diplomatically and turned us back from the brink of a nuclear war. This successful negotiation was the first step in dealing with problems of nuclear weapons. We all know that Cuba has a repressive political system and that people can earn better livelihoods in the dollar economy than in the peso economy, however, Cuba has excelled in some regards: (1) education free nursery through university (2) health - life expectancy up, child mortality down, general health better (3) low housing costs. After collapse of USSR, Cuba went into an economic tailspin, but they have survived through putting their efforts into organic agriclture, alternative transportation modes (e.g., bicycles), and emphasizing tourism.

Key:
If question #1 of your test begins with "Various characteristics ...," then here's the key: (1) b (2) c (3) b (4) d (5) c (6) c (7) c (8) c (9) b (10) c (11) d (12) ba (13) ha (14) bb (15) pd (16) ae (17) pb, ra (18) md (19) mb (20) za (21) zb (22) me (23) tb (24) mc (25) la (26) pc (27) pa (28) aa (29) ci (30) gc (31) sb (32) ya (33) ad (34) bc (35) cg (36) ua (37) sd (38) ch (39) cc (40) af (41) ga (42) ea (43) da (44) cj (45) td (46) ac (47) va (48) mf (49) cl (50) ma

If question #1 of your test begins with "Country X ...," then here's the key: (1) c (2) c (3) c (4) c (5) b (6) c (7) d (8) b (9) c (10) b (11) d (12) ba (13) gc (14) sb (15) ya (16) ad (17) bc (18) cg (19) ua (20) sd (21) ch (22) cc (23) af (24) ga (25) ea (26) da (27) cj (28) td (29) ac (30) va (31) mf (32) cl (33) ma (34) ha (35) bb (36) pd (37) ae (38) pb, ra (39) md (40) mb (41) za (42) zb (43) me (44) tb (45) mc (46) la (47) pc (48) pa (49) aa (50) ci

October 6:
We began our study of Sub-Saharan Africa. This region includes the area south of the Sahara Desert, called the Sahel. The Sahel is becoming ever more desertified. In eastern Africa, one finds a number of slender lakes. These are forming where tectonic plates are slowly pulling eastern Africa away from the rest of the continent. Most of Sub-Saharan Africa is several hundred feet above sea level; a high plateau.

I read the following article, then students identified the countries and the issue on base maps that I provided.
U. N. Says Sub-Saharan Africa Faces Food Emergency
ROME, July 6 (Reuters) - Millions of people in sub-Saharan Africa face food emergencies this year because of locusts, poor rains, civil strife and HIV/AIDS, the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) said on Tuesday. Twenty-three countries in the region are seriously affected by food insecurity, according to FAO's latest Africa Report. Sub-Saharan Africa's food aid requirement for 2004 is estimated at 2.9 million tonnes, compared to about 4 million tonnes last year, the FAO said. In Sudan, the humanitarian crisis in the greater Darfur region has had grave consequences with more than 1.2 million people forced from their homes and fields, the report said.
Despite good rains and a record cereal crop last year, prospects for the 2004 season are extremely poor as a result. "Reports paint a grim picture where the conflict has engulfed almost all parts of Greater Darfur, disrupting agricultural production and other essential activities." In eastern Africa, poor rains and the lingering effects of past droughts and conflicts have increased the likelihood of serious food shortages in several countries. "In Somalia, the situation is very alarming," the report said, singling out the drought in the northeast as particularly worrying. In Ethiopia, rains have been inadequate, while in Eritrea the likelihood of another drought-reduced harvest is very high. In Uganda, crop prospects are unfavorable because of erratic rains and Kenya's unfavorable crop prospects are compounded by cases of aflatoxin poisoning, a poison found in moldy crops. In western Africa, the overall food supply situation remains satisfactory reflecting good harvests in 2003, the FAO said, but food difficulties persist in several countries. An upsurge of desert locusts poses a serious threat to this year's coming crops in the Sahel, while insecurity and the lack of agricultural input continue to cause problems in Ivory Coast. In the Central African Republic, cereal production is expected to fall for the third year running as a result of civil strife, while in the Congo a delicate security situation is still hampering humanitarian assistance. Southern Africa is beset with HIV/AIDS and drought and the preliminary estimate of the 2004 cereal harvest there puts production at about 20 million tonnes, roughly a 4 percent drop from last year. Production of maize, the region's most important crop, declined by 9 percent from the previous year to 14 million tonnes. In Zimbabwe, cereal production remains well below average levels, with anticipated food shortages for 2.3 million rural people -- and at least as many in urban areas. The report cited a number of underlying factors including erratic rains, shortages of seeds and fertilizer, underused commercial farms, and the impact of HIV/AIDS. "Hyper-inflation, combined with extremely high levels of unemployment, greatly limit access to food for the most vulnerable people," the FAO added.

We discussed whether or not African countries would prefer to receive money or food as aid. They generally prefer money, so that they can buy food from African farmers that are producing.

We discussed the HIV/AIDS pandemic. As of 2003, in southern Africa, 20% or more of those 15-49 years of age are infected with HIV. The 2004 Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic was released on July 6, 2004. Some of the points made: (a) Since the first diagnosis of AIDS in 1981, 20 million have died and 38 million are currently living with it. In 2003, 5 million became infected and 3 million died. (b) The number of AIDS deaths is comparable to a 747 airplane crashing every hour. (c) The global spending on HIV/AIDS was only $300 million in 1996. In 2003, it was $5 billion. By 2007, an estimated $20 billion will be needed annually to combat this scourge. (d) In Sub-Saharan Africa, there are now 12 million AIDS orphans (and will probably be 20 million by the end of the decade). In 2003, 3 million were infected and 2.2 million died. A total of 25 million have HIV/AIDS (with 10% of the world's population, this region has almost 2/3 of all cases). Fifty-seven percent of HIV/AIDS infections are among women.

In the last several centuries, Sub-Saharan Africa has faced many changes, challenges, and great exploitation. We've already talked about the slave trade, that depopulated west and central Africa. Islam and Christianity also diffused, marginalizing indigenous animist faiths in a number of places. The Bantu, people from west Africa, diffused east and south.The Bantu diffused east from western Africa and then south, bringing with them their languages.Today, Bantu languages are spoken throughout much of Sub-Saharan (south of the Sahara) Africa. The Europeans colonized Africa. Colonialism has had a devastating impact on Africa. In 1884, little of Africa was colonized. In that year, European countries convened the Berlin Conference and divided up Africa. No Africans were asked to participate. The Europeans had found quinine effective against malaria and had heard of the wealth of Africa. The scramble was on. By 1895, most of Africa was colonized. In 1914, all of Africa was colonized except for Ethiopia (which was later briefly colonized by the Italians). Liberia, the country created for freed American slaves, was also listed as independent, yet the freed slaves who went to Liberia basically colonized the indigenous people.
Homework: In your own words, define the key words at the end of the chapter on Sub-Saharan Africa.

October 11:

Kenya has a population of about 29 million, with a 2% annual rate of natural increase. The life expectancy is under 50 years and the per capita GNP is about $320. Kenya was a British colony; it gained independence in 1963. In 1998, 213 were killed when terrorists (reportedly associated with Osama bin Laden) blew up the U.S. Embassy in Nairobi. Two of Kenya's main exports are coffee and tea. The Kenyan diet is heavy on maize (corn) and beans, with some meat (especially goat meat). Tourism is a very important commercial activity: Mt. Kenya, Mt. Kilimanjaro, Lake Victoria, Amboseli Reserve, etc. In addition to the savannas and the mountains (the two tallest mountains in Africa are in Kenya), miles and miles of white sand coastline draw tourists. The hotels along the coast are grouped - there are a few hotels in which the Germans stay, then some for Italians, Jamaicans, etc. If someone is interested in purchasing land in Kenya, they can do so. There are no requirements that the person be a citizen of Kenya. Kenya has 42 tribes and although the British imposed the English language on Kenyans, each tribe speaks its own language (or dialect). To communicate, Swahili has been adopted as, basically, a lingua franca. The two biggest cities are Nairobi (the capital) and Mombasa (the primary port). If you go swimming in Mombasa, look out for the sharks as they come in to feed off the trash. In the U.S., we are often struck by the ability of Kenyan runners. A former Kenyan student said that the runners come from the highlands and, having trained at high attitudes, running at sea level is a piece of cake. They can run and carry on a conversation while the other runners are huffing and puffing.Kenya is also very deforested and suffers from severe soil erosion. Part of the erosion problem is associated with replacement of indigenous bean crops with European varieties of beans and corn (not well adapted to the soil, plus corn is very hard on the soil). One person, Wangari Maathai (featured in the July 2004 issue of the New Internationalist) has worked long, hard, and well to reforest Kenya. Through her Greenbelt movement, poor women are paid for the tree seedlings that survive. It is an excellent incentive to care for the little trees. Wangari Maathai, now a government minister, was the first woman in east Africa to earn a Ph.D. On October 8, 2004, Wangari Maathai became the first African women to win the Nobel Peace Prize. The $1.36 million prize recognizes her Green Belt Movement (30 million trees planted), family planning, nutrition, fight against corruption. She said that “Many wars in the world are actually fought over natural resources. In managing our resources…we plant the seeds of peace, both now and in the future.”

South Africa: South Africa's population is about 40 million and, while Sub-Saharan Africa's population is in excess of 611 million, the economic power of South Africa is comparable to that of the rest of Africa. The original African peoples of South Africa were the Khoi and the San, who were killed and enslaved by the Dutch who settled the Cape in the mid-1600s. Today, the Khoi-San are found in desert land to the north of South Africa. The Xhosa appear to have been in South Africa since the 1500s. The Zulu exerted a powerful presence in the 1800s. South Africa was colonized by the Dutch in the mid-1600s; the Dutch settlers came to be known as Boer or Afrikaner. Early on, the Afrikaners were slave-holders, as most were agriculturalists. The British came into South Africa in the early 1806 and being a stronger country, began to call the shots. The British outlawed slavery in 1833, which greatly angered the Afrikaners. The Afrikaners migrated from the Cape area (in southwest South Africa) to the northeast. In the mid to late 1800s, diamonds and gold were found in the areas occupied by the Afrikaners. Conflict between the various parties ensued. In 1910, the independent country became the Union of South Africa (part of the British Commonwealth, a relationship it ended in 1961 when the country was renamed the Republic of South Africa). The Afrikaners' Nationalist (now, the "National") party came into power in 1948. While discrimination against non-whites had existed prior to 1948, the Nationalists institutionalized a system of Apartheid. Today, the population is 76% black African (with Zulu and Xhosa being the largest groups). Nelson Mandela is a Xhosa. Thirteen percent is white (with 3 Afrikaners for every 2 British). The coloured population (mixed black/white or Asian/white heritage) makes up nearly 9% of the population and Asians (primarily from South Asia) comprise about 3% of the population. While the majority population in South Africa is black, up until a few years ago, a white minority controlled the country. Apartheid, an Afrikaner word meaning "separate development of the races" really meant oppression of and discrimination toward non-whites in South Africa: South Africans were classified by race, marriage/sex between races was prohibited, facilities were segregated, blacks had no political rights, homelands were established, pass laws kept blacks from moving freely in the country, and blacks were grossly discriminated against in the workplace. Note: these homelands were rural, usually marginal to poor land, were often not the "home" of the residents (since blacks were forcibly removed to homelands from elsewhere in the country), and were over-crowded. In contrast, the townships were urban and were not intended as permanent homes for the blacks; they were slums around the cities where blacks could live while in the white man's employ (Soweto is South Africa's most famous township). The ANC's (African National Congress) sought peaceful resolution for years, and then turned to rebellion/revolution to change the oppressive system. The ANC's most famous leader, Nelson Mandela, was imprisoned for 27 years on charges of terrorism. In 1990, as a result of negotiations with President deKlerk, he was released from prison. The institutions of Apartheid began to be dismantled. In 1994, for the first time, all adults in South Africa (black, white, Asian, and coloured) were given the opportunity to vote. The people overwhelmingly chose the ANC party, and Nelson Mandela became the President of South Africa.

We watched a video, entitled "Mandela's Promised Land", about the days leading up to the 1994 election. The video begins in Mqekezweni, the village of Mandela's childhood. Here, students line up for a third rate education, where history begins with the Dutch settlers, not with their own African history. Only one of 70 will probably make it past high school. If he had stayed in the village, Mandela would have become the village chief. The man who is chief today thinks that Mandela made a mistake leaving. He says that it is more important to help your own people. In this village, the old are respected and the young are cherished. Mandela said it was a primitive life where everything was shared. Mandela comes to visit his village. The villagers are hoping that Mandela will deliver the promised land: electricity, schools, hospitals, new homes, and jobs. He moves on without saying how he'll get the billions needed to fulfill the promises. Next we go to Soweto, a township where blacks were forced to live. In an especially poor part of Soweto called Kliptown, seven million live in shacks. There is scattered garbage, open drains, and no electricity (except for batteries). Mandela came to Soweto with the ANC in 1955 to draw up the Freedom Charter. This Charter demanded jobs, houses, and so on in a non-racial South Africa. Mandela had been banned by the government, so he had to hide in the crowd. The demands have not been realized. Attitudes, however, have changed. One woman says that Mandela "gave us the light" - that before "we were stupid". She said that, in the old days, Africans would thank a white man for giving them a "clap" (a slap on the face). Actual physical conditions are worse now than in 1955. There is no sewer system, so toilet buckets must be emptied by hand. Emptying these buckets is a desirable job, in a country where black unemployment is 50%. Many have unrealistic expectations about how quickly the changes can be made. Mandela warns that, in some cases, it will take as much as five years, but some hope for changes within months. Next we travel to the Harrison's farm in the Orange Free State. Whites and blacks have received death threats, but many show up anyway. Mandela patiently writes down the workers' concerns. A white farmer, who was willing to be interviewed, said that the "Afs" aren't well enough educated to farm, although it would "be lovely to see". Mandela, though, wants everyone on board and he assures them that all, white and black, have a place in the new South Africa. After leaving the farm, we go to Mandela's neighborhood, an exclusive community in Johannesburg. It is ironic that today the whites live behind bars. The white family living across the street from Mandela says that, while he was convicted of terrorism, that nothing could really be further from reality. He is a "very, very, very nice man". This obviously wealthy family is confident that their privileged lifestyle won't change and, in fact, they don't think that they should even help pay for the changes. Mandela agrees, saying that the basic needs of the people can be addressed without bringing down the lifestyle of others. Next we see one of South Africa's exclusive schools, where poor black children are bused in for extra studies on the weekends. The children admire Mandela and say that he went to prison for the blacks. In reality, Mandela went to prison for a non-racial South Africa. He said that white domination should not be replaced by black domination, and that he would give his life to that cause. He was sentenced to life in prison, going first to Robbineiland, where he and the other prisoners had to set the tone for how they would be treated for the rest of their lives (they refused to walk fast). In the late 1980s, Mandela began secret negotiations with the ruling Nationalists. He saw it as his duty to change his enemies, not to destroy them. He asked people to forgive others, including black collaborators who did the dirty work for the whites. He spoke to a stadium full of very hopeful and excited Africans, who wanted the corrupt black mayor off the stage. Mandela, again, asked them to work with their former enemies. In the case of the Mayor of Maokeng, the people hated him. They had burned his garages, but hadn't killed him. He had gotten rich oppressing them. The mayor, however, was under the impression that he was popular and respectable and that people jealous of his status had burned his garages. He carries a gun because it is "my right". Mandela says that one of the most difficult things is to move people to a new position. We saw just how difficult when we traveled to Natal province, a stronghold of the Zulu's Inkatha party (a political party in competition with the ANC). A war there had already claimed 10,000 lives. We saw how a warlord named Ntombela could distort the truth and raise the level of violence. An ANC organizer had been killed and some of Ntombela's men were being held for the murder, but Ntombela told a group of fearful villagers that the ANC had killed one of their people. He told them he had many guns and medicines to keep the bullets from hurting them. Soon, the villagers were ready to do battle. As the reporter said, this was a case of a cynical man playing on people's fears. Dealing with violent opposition will be Mandela's first challenge; in fact, the area could become South Africa's Vietnam. The video ends with the reporter asking Mandela if he is a brave man. Mandela replies that, in his language, there is a saying "that the family of a brave man cries every day and sometimes it is not wise to be brave." There is little doubt, however, of his bravery and commitment, but he is also old and future leaders may have to carry out the promises made today.

Review: (1) Kenya, like the rest of Africa, was colonized. The European country of _ colonized Kenya. In 1963, the country gained its independence. In 1998, terrorists struck the U.S. Embassy in the country’s capital. The capital is _. This year’s Nobel Peace Prize winner has just been announced. The winner is _, the first African woman to receive the prize. What, specifically, is she known for?_ (2) In South Africa, the original inhabitants were the _. Nelson Mandela’s tribe, the _, probably immigrated to South Africa in the 1500s. In the 1600s, Europeans who came to be known as _ colonized. Then, in the early 1800s, another European power, the _, colonized.  (3) The video, The Promised Land, recounts the days leading up to the election of _, the first black president of South Africa. While convicted of terrorism in the 1960s, he always said he went to jail for a social cause. What exactly did he want to see in South Africa? _ After visiting the village of Mqekezweni, we visited the poor black township called _. In 1955, the African National Congress (ANC) marched in protest and drew up a list of demands. The document they produced is called the _. It called for jobs, houses, and education in a non-racial South Africa. Why were the people so angry at the mayor of Maokeng?_

October 13:

South Africa: The ethnic composition is as follows: 76% black, 13% white, 9% colored, and 3% Asian. Since the 1994 first all-race election (the ANC won, and selected Nelson Mandela president), there have been some changes in South Africa. The following are some examples: (a) To help heal the pain and bitterness of Apartheid, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established in 1996. This Commission was headed by Desmond Tutu and gave amnesty to those who confessed to and apologized for political crimes during Apartheid. (b) Today, Soweto has improved (in terms of housing, public amenities, tourists) but crime is very, very serious. (c) Black debt feeds into crimes of desperation, e.g., the deregulated small loan industry is able to charge unbelievable interest rates. As a result, many blacks are constantly taking out new loans to repay the old ones (millions of loans each month).(d) The 1994 Restitution of Land Rights Act was passed to allow return of confiscated lands to black African families.

Rwanda: The population of Rwanda is about 8 million, with a life expectancy under 45 years. Most of the people live in rural areas and the income is very low. The two main groups in Rwanda are the Tutsi (14% of the population) and Hutu (85% of the population). Historically, they have shared the same language, religion, beliefs, and customs. Being a Tutsi was associated with owning cattle. Under colonial rule, the Belgians used the minority Tutsis to enforce their rule over the majority (and poor) Hutu. They imposed an Apartheid-type system. In the late 1959s, the Hutu rebelled and oppressed the Tutsi, in a reverse Apartheid-type system. Many Tutsis left the country and formed the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). In 1990, the RPF invaded and finally negotiated a power-sharing settlement with the President. For many of the Hutu, sharing power was the one thing they could not stand and they began to plan an end to the arrangement. They named themselves the "Interhamwe" (meaning "those who attack - or fight - together"). In late 1993, a small (2500) contingent of UN Peacekeepers arrived to help hold the fragile peace together; the troops thought it would be an easy mission. In January 1994, a man who had been training the Interhamwe came forward, revealing that the aim was to kill the maximum number of Tutsi civilians possible. An urgent message was sent to UN headquarters in New York. Headquarters told UNAMIR (the name of the UN Peacekeepers) to stand down and not go after the caches of weapons. The reason? No one wanted to risk another Somalia, where the graphic killing of 18 US soldiers a few months earlier was burned into the public's brain. In hindsight, the UN realizes that it made a big mistake. On April 6, 1994, the President of Rwanda was flying back home after further negotiations with the Tutsis. His plane was shot down by missiles. The extermination plan began to unfold. Roadblocks were set up to identify and kill Tutsis. Most were hacked to death with machetes. The Hutu extremists said that "the Tutsi must become nothing but a memory." Radio announcers told where Tutsis were spotted and to go get them. The lives of moderate Hutu officials also came under threat. In the first few days of the killing, at least 18 other moderate Hutu leaders (who might have been able to turn the tide) were killed. Tutsis who managed to evade the roadblocks made their way to safe havens, for example schools guarded by UNAMIR. Then, 10 Belgian troops were trapped, tortured, mutilated and killed. UNAMIR troops were horrified, but not inclined to leave. On the other hand, Belgian officials lobbied countries to vote to pull out UN troops. The UN Security Council voted to pull out UNAMIR. The US State Department constructed the issue as a break down in the peace process, not ethnic cleansing or genocide. But, within a few days, 10s of 1000s were already dead. American, Italian, Belgian, etc. civilians were airlifted out. The French, the Belgians, the Italians did the same. By April 21, the Red Cross was estimating that perhaps 100s of 1000s were already dead. The 250 troops who were left were powerless to do anything. With UNAMIR essentially gone, all hell broke loose. No longer were there any sanctuaries. Bodies were strewn across the countryside. But, while some knew that this was a genocide, the UN was hesitant to say so. If this was called a genocide and the UN did nothing, how would that look? Then the objective reality in Rwanda got a little harder to ignore, as bodies began floating out of the country. By mid-May, 500,000 had been killed. Finally, the US called for action, asking that additional troops and artillery be sent to Rwanda. No timeline for implementation was set and the countries quibbled over the details. Finally, the APCs (armored personnel carriers) were shipped over, but they were unloaded in Uganda, where they stayed until the killing was over. The killing stopped when the RPF prevailed. An estimated 800,000 were killed in 100 days. The UN called it genocide. Today, the president is a Tutsi; his name is Kagama.

Democratic Republic of Congo (watch the name, there's also a smaller country called the Republic of Congo): Moderate Hutus and Tutsi fled to the Congo, and a war erupted there (the war in Congo is now referred as the First African World War). First, a little history. Via the Berlin Conference, Belgium's King Leopold took Congo. While King Leopold never set foot in the Congo, his people exploited it ruthlessly on his behalf. Half of the people of Congo died, from disease from also from trying to carry out impossible tasks from the Belgian taskmasters. In 1908, the Congo became a Belgium colony (rather than the private property of the king of Belgium). Rubber, cotton, peanuts, coffee, sugarcane, palm oil, forest, copper, etc. were exploited for white gain. In 1957, the formation of African political parties began. In 1960, with independence, Lumumba was elected Prime Minister; he was abducted during a coup just a few days later and killed in January 1961. A civil war ensued that ended with the rise of Mobutu, a kleptocrat who renamed the country Zaire. Uranium, manganese, tin, copper, cobalt, diamonds, coltan were extensively mined. Mobutu was brutal and continued to plunder the country. The IMF directly controlled the economy after 1980. Student protests began in 1990; military killed many of the protestors. The problems continued. In 1995, Laurent Kabila led a resistance alliance; in 1997, he became president (and the name changed back to the Democratic Republic of Congo). In 1998, war erupted again, this time involving the surrounding countries (including Rwanda). Kabila was assassinated in January 2001. His son, Joseph, is now president. The war has killed 3 million people (people are unable to grow food because of the war; rape is used as a weapon of war; the primates and other species are being decimated). Joseph Kabila began peace talks in 2002. Peace deal in 2003, but the situation is still not stable.

Moving on to west Africa, we turn to Nigeria. Nigeria is the most populous country in Sub-Saharan Africa, with a population over 129 million. It was a British colony until 1960. Three major ethnic groups: the Yoruba (southwest, Christian), the Ibo (southeast, Christian), and Hausa-Fulani (north, Muslim) live in Nigeria. A civil war, from 1967-1970, claimed one million lives; the Ibo had hoped to become an independent country named Biafra. Nigeria is an extremely corrupt country. Oil was first drilled in Nigeria in 1965. Today, it is a major oil producer, taking in $100 million per month in oil revenue and $400 billion from oil since 1970. Nigeria is the 10th largest producer in the world and the 5th largest foreign supplier to the US, yet it is one of the world's poorest countries (mostly because of government and corporate corruption). Lagos, the largest city with 13.5 million people, was established as a farming and fishing village. From the mid 1700 to the mid 1800s, it was a slave trading center. In 1861, the British took it over. Today it has been called "the biggest disaster area that ever passed for a city." While one of Africa's most economically and technologically advanced cities, public services are sub-par at best and violent crime is a constant risk. For a little additional information: a video entitled "Lagos: Rich Man, Poor Man" illustrates the inequity of the city. The film contrasted the lives of two families (the poor family in the Amukoko neighborhood; the rich family in the Ogudu neighborhood). In the poor neighborhood, the family had only one small room. Washing the laundry took place outdoors and cooking was on a small kerosene stove in the shared kitchen. Water for drinking was purchased because the well water was contaminated by the latrines. The family had electricity, but outages were experienced frequently. Accommodations were expensive and hard to find. The poor man had a job at one of the biggest grain mills in the world and had worked there for over 25 years yet his family barely made it. The wife worked cooking and selling food at a private school. The parents paid to send their children to private school, where class sizes were smaller than the 60 per class in the government schools. Children are taught in English. Living in a large house with a high wall and bullet-proof doors, the rich family's reality was quite different. The man was an ad executive and the woman made exclusive children's clothes. The family lived a European-style life, with a reserve water tank (in case the water was cut off) and a generator (for use during power outages). The family had several TVs, a computer, kitchen appliances, and several servants: maid, gardener, and driver. The driver took the daughter to private school while the older children attended boarding outside Lagos. In terms of the city of Lagos, it was built on islands in a lagoon. The CBD was along the water front, around the port. Much of Lagos used to be swampy, with mangroves and a massive sand bar. Much of Lagos is low-lying, so flooding is an ongoing problem. Some houses are built on stilts; in other places, marshes are filled in for the homes of the rich. Driving is a "nightmare" and public transport is even worse. It is overcrowded, not on time, and increasingly expensive. Public service provision is terrible because of political instability, growing population, mismanagement, and lack of money (read: corruption). While the rich family sees the power outages and other public service failures as making life interesting, for the poor there is considerable suffering. But the people keep coming, because of the opportunities for work.

Review: (1) South Africa was colonized by Africans and Europeans. Today, the majority of South Africa’s people are _ (name the race). (2) South Africa’s two main tribes are the _; most belong to the ANC. The other main tribe is the _; many belong to the Inkatha party. (3) The _ was established to help heal the pain and bitterness of Apartheid. (4) In the tiny African country of Rwanda, a genocide occurred in 1994. The majority _ tried to eliminate the minority _. The current president is _, a member of the minority ethnic group. (5) The First African World was fought in the country of _. A peace deal and transitional government in 2003 have set the country on a path toward peace. _, a metal used in cellphones, is one of the resources of this country. (6) The most populous country of Sub-Saharan Africa is _. In the southeastern part of the country live an ethnic group called the _; they fought for independence from 1967-1970. Had they won their fight, they would have named their new country _. (7) The largest city in the largest Sub-Saharan African country is _. This city, which is growing rapidly, may be the world’s most chaotic city. 

GEO 160: Articles for Critical Thinking Essay #2
Please see syllabus for instructions. Due on October 20. Select five of the following articles, for inclusion in your essay:
“Israel Investigates Palestinian Girl’s Death” by Ramit Plushnick-Masti, The Associated Press, October 12, 2004
published in The Seattle Times
http://seattletimes.nwsource.com
“Blix: War in Iraq Has Stimulated Terrorism”
Middle East Online, October 13, 2004
http://www.middle-east-online.com
“Rebel Bastions Targeted in Iraq” by Robert H. Reid
The Associated Press, October 13, 2004
Times Union in Albany, NY
http://www.timesunion.com
“Missing in Action in Iraq” by Daisy Sindelar
Asia Times Online, October 14, 2004
http://atimes.com
“Peace Activists Remain Undaunted” by Rob Winder
BBC News, October 8, 2004
http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk
“Israel Extends Offensive in Gaza”
BBC News, October 13, 2004
http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk
“Iraq Public Health ‘Key Concern’” by Magdi Abdelhadi
BBC News, October 13, 2004
http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk
“Falluja Threatened Over Militants”
BBC News, October 13, 2004
http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk

October 18:

We began the study of North Africa/Southwest Asia by watching a documentary filmed in Iraq in 2000. The film is entitled "Paying the Price: Killing the Children of Iraq" and is available in the LCC Library. The following text is drawn from information on John Pilger's publication website.

Introduction (remember that this documentary was produced in 2000): On August 2, 1990 the Iraqi army invaded its southern neighbour, Kuwait. Four days later the United Nations responded by imposing a complete trade embargo on Iraq. In the ten years since Iraq has continued to be the subject of sanctions that affect almost every aspect of life for the average woman, man and child. With imports of food and medicine severely restricted, malnutrition and disease is now endemic in what was once one of the healthiest countries in the world. A 1999 Unicef report calculated that more than half a million children had died as a direct result of sanctions. As of 2000, on average 200 hundred Iraqi children were dying every day. In September 1998, Denis Halliday head of the UN humanitarian program in Iraq resigned claiming he could no longer administer 'an immoral and illegal' policy. His successor, Hans von Sponeck also later resigned, along with the head of the World Food Programme. Meanwhile US and UK politicians insisted that the sanctions regime was necessary to contain the threat of Saddam Hussein. When asked on US television whether the death of 500,000 Iraqi children as a result of sanctions was justified Madelaine Albright replied 'I think this is a very hard choice, but the price - we think the price is worth it.' (She made this statement on CBS in 1996. If you'd like to see the video clip and learn more about this, go to http://www.distanceeddesign.com/iraq/worth-the-price.htm). On March 6, 2000 the documentary 'Paying the Price: Killing the Children of Iraq' was broadcast on British television. It was written and presented by John Pilger and produced and directed by Alan Lowery.

Health: Before 1990 and the imposition of sanctions, Iraq had one of the highest standards of living in the Middle East. In 2000, Unicef reported that at least 200 children were dying every day. They were dying from malnutrition, a lack of clean water and a lack of medical equipment and drugs to cure easily treatable diseases. The food ration, while nearly sufficient in calories, did not include enough vitamins, minerals and protein for health or growth. Malnutrition was now endemic amongst children. Diseases like kwashiorkor or marasmus were common in pediatric wards. Before 1990 the most important problem faced by Iraqi pediatricians was childhood obesity. Many sewage treatment plants were targets of the air strikes during the war. Others have since disintegrated without equipment and spare parts from abroad. Chlorine and other water purification chemicals were banned under 'dual use' considerations. As a result, children die of what should be treatable diseases: simple diarrhea, typhoid, dysentery and other water-borne illnesses. Dr Jinan Ghalib Hassen showed Pilger around a children's hospital ward. The health system disintegrated under sanctions. Hospitals are short staffed with doctors' and nurses' salaries insufficient to support them. Medical equipment like incubators, X-ray machines, and heart and lung machines were banned. The Security Council consistently blocked vaccines, analgesics and chemotherapy drugs, claiming they could be converted into chemical or biological weapons. Problems with transportation and refrigeration meant that even allowed drugs - like antibiotics - arrived only intermittently. Children with leukemia, who can be saved with a full course of antibiotics, die, because one dose is missing. Morphine, the most effective painkiller was banned by the Security Council. At the same time the number of cases of cancer rose sharply, especially in southern Iraq. Professor Karol Sikora, former Chief of Cancer at WHO, discussed the ban on morphine. After the Gulf war, Iraq was not allowed the equipment to clean up its battlefields. More than 1 million rounds of weapons coated in depleted uranium (a radioactive material left over from the nuclear enrichment process) were used by the allies during the war. As much as 300 tonnes of expended DU ammunition now lies scattered throughout Kuwait and Iraq. Depleted uranium dust gets into the food chain via water and the soil. It can be ingested and inhaled. Prolonged internal exposure leads to respiratory diseases, breakdown of the immune system, leukemia, lung cancer and bone cancer. Cases of cancers in Iraq have risen tenfold since 1990. If cancers continue on the present upward curve, 44 per cent of the population could develop cancer within ten years.

What is the West's rationale for maintaining the current sanctions regime against Iraq? The UN Security Council imposed a complete trade embargo on trade with Iraq on August 6, 1990, four days after the Iraqi army had invaded Kuwait. But the West soon decided that more decisive action was necessary to force Saddam Hussein to retreat. So early in 1991 a US-led coalition mounted Operation Desert Storm starting with air strikes and culminating in a ground offensive. The Iraqi army was defeated in 42 days. But there was no lifting of the embargo after the Allied victory. Instead a regime of sanctions coupled with weapons inspections was set up to ensure the complete destruction of Iraq's biological, chemical and nuclear weapons programs, with the aim of preventing the possibility of a future invasion. The motivation for continuing the embargo was therefore twofold: first, to put pressure on the Iraqi government to co-operate with the UN's team of weapons inspectors (UNSCOM), second, to prevent Saddam Hussein from importing the equipment to build new weapons. UNSCOM went about its mandate of monitoring the destruction of the Iraq's weapons facilities from 1991 until 1998 when the inspection team was recalled from Iraq prior to the US bombing of December 1998. Since then Iraq has refused to allow the return of inspectors. Whilst UNSCOM was active in Iraq the Western press pounced on reports of the Iraq's non co-operation, especially refusals to allow the UN team into Iraq's palaces (regarded by Iraqis as symbols of their sovereignty). But former weapons inspector Raymond Zilinskas insisted that '95% of [Unscom's] work proceed[ed] unhindered.' In December 1999 a UN resolution created a new inspection team, UNMOVIC, designed to be independent of Washington's influence. But Iraq thought that UNMOVIC was nothing more than the old inspections body under a new name. The UN monitoring mission was dead, irrespective of the status of the embargo. As for the effectiveness of the blockade in preventing Saddam Hussein from importing materials for producing new weapons of mass destruction, crippling Iraq economically may have achieved this aim but only at the unacceptable cost of the well-being of the Iraqi people and their country. This is too high a price to pay, whatever Madelaine Albright may say.

In 1989, the literacy rate was 95%; and 93% of the population had free access to modern health facilities. Iraq had reached a stage where the basic indicators we use to measure the overall well-being of human beings, including children, were some of the best in the world. By 2000, it was among the bottom 20%. In 10 years, child mortality has gone from one of the lowest in the world, to the highest. Over $8 billion a year should be available to Iraq for the humanitarian programs - not only for foods and medicines, but also clean water, electricity and educational material. No one should starve. Of the $20 billion provided through the oil-for-food programme, about a third, or $7 billion, has been spent on UN 'expenses', reparations to Kuwait and assorted compensation claims. That leaves $13 billion available to the Iraqi government. If you divide that figure by the population of Iraq, which is 22 million, it leave some $190 per head of population per year over 3 years - that is pitifully inadequate.

Why did John Pilger not film in northern Iraq, where the situation is far better? No one starves and health indicators have actually been improving, yet exactly the same sanctions regime applies there. The difference is that Saddam's writ does not run there. Why do sanctions critics prefer to ignore that inconvenient but crucial fact? There are a number of important differences in the way that sanctions work in the northern and south/central Iraq. For example, Kurdistan receives 22% more per capita from the oil-for-food programme because a large proportion of southern Iraq's quota is used to pay UN costs and make war reparations to Kuwait. There are at least five other factors. The latest report by the Secretary-General notes that one quarter of all medical goods delivered to Iraq since the humanitarian programme started were not, as of 2000, distributed: sitting in Government-controlled warehouses. The medicines which "lie in warehouses" are there because, as UN officials tirelessly explain, the World Health Organisation has instructed Iraq to maintain emergency buffer stocks and actually wants these increased. Because of the delays in New York, they say, supplies arrive erratically: for example, IV fluids frequently turn up ahead of equipment, without which they are useless.The US and UK governments and press have reported that the Iraqi government has systematically obstructed and undermined the UN's weapons inspections program. But the story of Unscom's relationship with the Iraqi government is much more complex than is allowed by US and UK politicians. While a 1998 report to the Security Council by chief weapons inspector Richard Butler does detail specific instances of Iraqi defiance, it suggests that, overall, Baghdad co-operated with inspections. In February of the same year Raymond Zilinskas, a former member of Unscom, stated that '95% of work proceeds unhindered.' Iraqi non-compliance often came only after provocation from the US administration. In March 1998 Clinton announced that Iraq had to open its palaces - percieved by Iraqis as symbols of their sovereignty - 'anytime, without any conditions, deadlines or excuses'. In addition, the Iraqis discovered evidence that American members of Unscom were spying for Washington. After initial vociferous denials the US was forced to concede the truth of the allegations following an embarrassing expose in the Washington Post. Ignoring the ambiguities of Butler's report, the US took it as a pretext to launch massive air-strikes against Iraq without waiting for Security Council backing. That was the last straw for the Iraqis. They refused to allow inspectors back in the country.
   
Meanwhile in June 2000, Scott Ritter, former weapons inspector in Iraq, said 'It was possible as early as 1997 to determine that, from a qualitative standpoint, Iraq had been disarmed. Iraq no longer possessed any meaningful quantities of chemical or biological agent, if it possessed any at all, and the industrial means to produce these agents had either been eliminated or were subject to stringent monitoring. The same was true of Iraq's nuclear and ballistic missile capabilities. As long as monitoring inspections remained in place, Iraq presented a WMD-based threat to no one.'

A few other points from the documentary:
(a) While it is not proven, many healthcare professionals and others think that depleted uranium (DU) in the environment (especially in southern Iraq) is responsible for the increased incidence of congenital defects, tumors, cancers, and other previously rare diseases. Poor children may not be brought to the hospital. If they are, their chances of surviving cancer is slimmer than it is for a child of wealthier parents. The wealthy are able to obtain the drugs that the hospitals cannot reliably obtain.
(b) The Oil for Food program began in 1996 and was overseen by the U.N. Security Council.
(c) The art of writing comes from Mesopotamia and so it was particularly sad to see treasured books on sale, so that families could eat.
(d) The schools deteriorated under sanctions. Many of the sewage treatment plants were disabled and weren't repaired, so sewage sometimes inundated school yards and classrooms, where equipment, books, and desks are not a given. Children were even being treated for mental health problems.
(e) A number of people have been badly burned or even killed because of explosions in paraffin heaters. The conductor (Mr. Ezzet) of the Iraqi National Orchestra was burned when he tried to save his wife.
(f) The history of Iraq includes the 1921 creation, by the United Kingdom, of a desert monarchy. In 1958, a nationalist government rose, but was squelched within 5 years. In 1979, Saddam Hussein, a member of the Ba'ath party, came to power. Mr. Gates, former director of the CIA, said it was well-known that Hussein was ruthless: he shot his predecessor in a Cabinet meeting. It was said that he was a "son of a bitch but he was our son of a bitch." The U.S. and United Kingdom sold him a variety of weapons, planes, etc. and sided with him against Iran. As a result of the influx of WMD, Scott Ritter said that Iraq had many WMDs in 1991. By 1998, they were dismantled.
(f) During the first Gulf War, most of those killed were Kurds (who live in the north) and Shi'ites (who live in the south). Pilger accused President Bush of betraying the Shi'ites by letting on that the U.S. would support a popular uprising against Saddam Hussein (who is Sunni). The U.S. didn't lend support to the invasion, and many were killed. The U.S. was reportedly afraid that, if the Shi'ites prevailed, Iraq would become a fundamentalist Islamic country (like Iran).
(g) Between the first Gulf War and the second one, many sorties were flown over Iraq (patrolling the no-fly zones in the north and south). Bombs were dropped on numerous occasions. We saw one example - the shepherds and sheep that were bombed.

October 20:

After discussing the film watched on Monday, I pointed out the following statistics: (1) the estimated long-term cost of the war in Iraq to every U.S. household is $3,415; (2) the estimated number of al Qaeda (which means "the base") as of May 2004 was 18,000 terrorists with 1,000 now active in Iraq; and (3) oil production in Iraq in 2002 was 2.04 million barrels/day and by 2003, it dropped to 1.33 million barrels/day.
I used transparencies to point to some of the issues in North Africa and Southwest Asia. (a) This area has been colonized for centuries. Beginning in the 1300s, the Ottoman Empire (Turkish) spread through this region and Eastern Europe. After WWI and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Britain, France, Italy, Austria, and Russia had the mandate (colonized) this area. (b) While there are exceptions, women are often faced with harsh restrictions. For example, seclusion of women, social restrictions, government-mandated dress codes, attacks for immodest dress, forbidden to drive or to travel without a male's permission are commonplace. (c) Petroleum is found is most, but not all, countries of this region. For example, Israel does not have oil. Currently, the U.S. produces domestically 44% of our petroleum and imports the other 56%. Sixty percent of this oil comes from Non-OPEC countries and 18% from Non-Arab OPEC (Indonesia, Nigeria, Venezuela). Only 22% comes from Arab OPEC countries (Algeria, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates). (d) This region is primarily desert, with Mediterranean climates along the coast. Availability of water is an important issues, with countries like Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Israel, Jordan, Algeria, and others already experiencing water stress. (e) Not surprisingly, most of the people are concentrated near water (e.g., the Nile River, the Tigres and Euphrates Rivers, the Mediterranean Sea). This region is home to two culture hearths: the Nile Valley and Mesopotamia (Mespotamia was the land between the Tigres and the Euphrates, in today's Iraq). (f) The world's three great monotheistic religions sprang from this region: Judaism (the oldest), Christianity, and Islam (the youngest). There are about 18 million Jews in the world, with the largest cluster in North America followed by a large cluster in Israel. Christianity has the most adherent worldwide, about 1.6 billion (most are Roman Catholic). Islam, with about 1.3 billion adherents, is the fastest growing faith in the world. The dominant religion of this region is Islam. (g) Most of the countries in this region are either monarchies or republics (in a republic, the head of state is someone other than a monarchy, and the people are governed by elected representatives of the people).

Students then broke into groups of four. Using the book text and maps, each group found out about faith/religion; environment/climate; population/settlement; impact of globalization; geopolitics; and economies/resources for the following sub-regions: The Maghreb and its neighbors (Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Libya); Egypt and Sudan; Arabian Peninsula (Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait); Middle East, including the Levant (Israel, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan); and Empire States (Turkey, Iran). The most important points were written on a map on the region.

Maghreb and its neighbors (Maghreb includes parts of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia)
- The Atlas Mountains are found in the northwest.
- Nomads have traditionally practiced transhumance (moving livestock according to the season) in this sub-region.
- Most speak Arabic.

Egypt and Sudan
- Egypt the region’s most populous country.
- A 50-year civil war in Sudan has recently become even more deadly; genocide is reportedly occurring.
- From the Nile Valley sprang one of the world’s great culture hearths.
- On the Nile River is the Aswan High Dam.
- Cairo, Egypt now has a population of 15 million.
- Most speak Arabic.

Arabian Peninsula
- Saudi Arabia is depleting its water resources via an ill-conceived agricultural scheme.
- Most speak Arabic.
- Saudi Arabia has the largest known oil reserves.

Middle East, including the Levant (the Levant = the eastern Mediterranean region)
- Mesopotamia, in today’s Iraq, was one of the world’s great culture hearths.
- The Tigres and Euphrates, now polluted with salts, run through this sub-region.
- One of the first places that agriculture was practiced was in the Fertile Crescent.
- The Israeli kibbutzes are collectively farmed settlements.
- Most speak Arabic.

Empire States
- Turkey and Iran are two of the region’s three most populous countries.
- Much of Turkey has a Mediterranean climate, like Spain’s.
- Iran’s qanat system, for distributing scarce water, has been replicated across this region.
- Iran is a theocratic state.
- The vast, and long-lived, Ottoman Empire was a Turkish empire.
- The Iranians speak an Indo-European language (English is also Indo-European).

October 25:

Islam: Islam is a monotheistic faith built upon the foundations of the region's earliest monotheistic faith, Judaism, and its offspring, Christianity. Muslims believe that Jesus was not God, but a prophet. Further, they believe that Muhammed was the very last in a series of prophets who brought the word of God (Allah) to humankind. Muhammed was born in 570 A.D. to a poor family in western Arabia (Saudi Arabia) in the city of Mecca. At the time, Mecca was already a place of pilgrimage, as 300 polytheistic deities were venerated there. When Muhammed was 40 years old, the Angel Gabriel came to him. Over the next 22 years, the words of Allah were received and relayed to scribes who wrote them down as the Quran (Koran) - the holy book of Islam. During this time, Muhammed began preaching the existence of one God. The polytheistic people of Mecca viewed this as heresy and he was forced to flee Mecca (going to Medina). The Islamic calendar begins with his flight to Medina. He and his disciplines were able to come back to Mecca and, in 630, after several skirmishes, Muslims peacefully occupied Mecca. Muslims destroyed the idols and became a pilgrimage center for Islam. After Muhammed died in 632, Arabian armies carried the new faith far and wide. Initially, the Syrian city of Damascus became the center of the Muslim empire. In about 750, Baghdad, Iraq assumed this role. There are two major branches in Islam: the Sunni (the majority today) who thought that Muhammed's successors should be persons with strong leadership skills and deep piety and the Shi'ite (or Shia) who thought that only a direct descendent of Muhammed should be the Islamic leader. Muslim scholars accomplished much in math, astronomy, and geography. They translated the Greek and Roman classics. Muslims generally adhere to five practices; these are called the Five Pillars of Islam. They are: profession of faith (there is only one God); prayer (five times a day, toward Mecca); almsgiving (for the needy); daytime fasting during the month of Ramadan; and a pilgrimage to Mecca (during this pilgrimage, all wear simple garments - so, for a few days, all distinctions between social class, ethnicity, and nationality are removed).

Western Sahara (the people of Western Sahara are called Sahrawis or Saharawis). The population is 300,000; the infant mortality rate is 150 (bad sign); and the life expectancy is 46 for males, 48 for females. For 13 centuries, the Sahrawis were nomadic.In 1885, the Spain came in to colonize. A 50-year resistance was crushed in 1934. In the 1950s, droughts forced the Sahrawis to settle in Spanish cities where they provided cheap labor for the Spanish. In 1973, the Polisario Front was established and within two years had gained massive popular support. At the end of 1975, the Moroccans invaded. Many Sahrawis fled to the Polisario Front strongholds and then fled to refugee camps in Algeria. A berm was built by the Moroccans to keep the Sahrawis in/out. The berm is reportedly to be longer than the Great Wall of China. In 1991, the UN brokered a ceasefire, but resolution is not forthcoming. Today, there are 178,000 refugees (2/3 of the Sahrawi population) in four large camps in Algeria. Women make up 80% of the camp population. The women have focused on preparing themselves to be participants in an independent country. Their focus has included: (a) public health: teaching healthy habits to the children, preventing flies and other disease organisms, creating a medical system. (b) education: under Spanish colonialism, <1% could read, today over 90% are literate; the women are very dedicated to education of themselves and their children (the Koran says that those who know and who don't know are not truly equal); daycare is provided; a universal education system is often augmented by study abroad.The goal is to obtain the skills and knowledge necessary to run a modern state after independence. (c) mutual aid: the women help each other, in a tradition of interdependence and mutual obligation (d) food: until recently, the Algerian provided food, but this has become increasingly difficult. Today, the people carefully plan the distribution of the food aid, have invested in small agricultural projects, and grow vegetables. The Sahrawis are culturally distinct from the Moroccans (this underlies the claim to independence). The Moroccans have invaded the homes of Sahrawis on the west side of the berm. People have been imprisoned, tortured, and killed. Many have disappeared. One hundred miles west of the refugee camps, the UN Peacekeepers keep watch. A referendum was supposed to take place in January 1992, but it has never occurred. This referendum would allow voters to decide whether they want independence, or a continued alliance with Morocco. The problem is that Morocco has moved in many Moroccan, who are claiming that they should get to vote. Western Sahara has potential petroleum, a good fishery, and the world's largest deposits of phosphates (used in fertilizer and other products).

Judaism: 18 million adherents. Judaism: monotheistic religion, 3000-4000 years old, Yahweh - God, Torah - holy book,. About 2000 BC, the people migrated from Mesopotamia (Iraq) to Canaan (Israel). When famine struck, they migrated to Egypt (about 1200 BC). In 1020 BC, Moses led them back from Egypt to Canaan. The Jews believe that this is the promised land (that God gave them) and that they are the chosen people. Beginning during Roman times, the Jews dispersed throughout the world; this is called the Jewish diaspora. In the 1890s, the Zionist movement began, a movement to establish a homeland for the Jews. In the late 1800s, not many Jews lived in Palestine. Palestine, never an independent country, was part of the Ottoman Empire until WWI. After that, the British had the mandate for Palestine. The British had asked the Palestinians to fight on their side during WWI and, in return, Palestine would become an independent country. Then, in 1917, the British's Balfour Declaration acknowledged the need for a safe/secure home for the Jews. Jews began flowing into Palestine. The Palestinians felt betrayed. Then, during WWII, the flow of Jews increased and the British set a quota of the monthly number to be admitted. Many Jews were turned away. After WWII, the writing was on the wall. There would be a homeland for the Jews.

In 1947, the United Nations proposed two countries between what is today Jordan and the Mediterranean River. The Jews accepted the partition, but the Arabs (Palestinians and other Arabs) rejected it, seeing the Jews as colonizers. War ensued, officially beginning May 15, 1948, the day after Israel declared its independence. When it was over, over 10,000 of the Jew's 600,000 people were killed. The toll for the Palestinians was much higher, however. The Palestinians call this war "the catastrophe." Many fled to squalid refugee camps. Only 20% of the Palestinians remained in Israel at the end of the war. Pushing the Palestinians out of their own land fueled the ideology of the right to return. This idea of return is at the core of the conflict (for the Jews - a return to the Promised Land; for the Palestinians - a return to their traditional villages). Nationalism (Jewish nationalism, which is called Zionism -- and Palestinian nationalism) plays a tremendous role, with control of LAND the hoped-for outcome. Some Palestinians keep keys for years to homes that long ago were destroyed by the Israelis. This conflict over God/history, right of return, land (including the major issue of the Israeli settlements in Palestinian territory), and conflicting claims of sovereignty over Jerusalem (Jerusalem is holy to the Muslim, Jew, and Christian) has resulted in wars (1948, 1956 - Sinai, 1967 - 6 Day, 1973 - Yon Kippur, 1982 - Lebanon) and two intifadas - 1987 and now (2000-today). Headway toward peace, cemented by the 1993 Oslo Accords (signed by Palestinian Arafat and Israeli Begin) ended when an Israeli extremist killed Rabin in 1995. The Palestinians have been treated horribly by Israel. Humiliation, along with settlements, roadblocks, guns, tanks, walls, and other means, are used to control the lives of the Palestinians. Many Palestinians have become desperate. Desperate people become dangerous. The second intifada began when Ariel Sharon visited the Temple Mount in 2000. He was already widely despised by the Arab world and this visit was seen as provocation. The Israeli police opened fire on Palestinians throwing rocks. The Israelis even killed Israeli Arabs, who are citizens of Israel. These Arabs, who make up 20% of the population of Israel, were treated as the enemy.

October 27:

In our textbook, Tibet (not an independent country) is included in the region of Central Asia.

Students watched a 55-minute Frontline documentary entitled "Dreams of Tibet". We see Steven Seagall with
Buddhist monks, Californians buying Tibetan goods, and Harrison Ford making a speech about the plight of Tibet (in 1949, Tibet asked for help from the United Nations, the US, Britain, etc. and no one came to the country's aid). Orville Schell says that Hollywood is more powerful than the government or the military in creating awareness of issues, like Tibet. One film that raised awareness was "Seven Years in Tibet" starring Brad Pitt. Since the Chinese government wouldn't allow it to be filmed in China, Tibet was recreated in Argentina, with the Andes standing in for the Himalayas. Another film about Tibet, "Kundun", is being filmed in Morocco. Tibetans are the actors; there are no stars. Tibet's tragic history is at odds with the romanticized western notions of Tibet as a Shangala. For centuries, Tibet was beyond the known world. One Tibetan exile says that westerners love Tibet, but have no idea that a true cultural extinction is going on. We see the prayer flags flying at 17,000' and begin to get some sense of the depth of a faith whose adherents joyfully prostate themselves for miles and miles, on the way to Lhasa. In the 7th century, Buddhism came to Tibet and combined with Tibetan mysticism to form the unique religion of Tibetan Buddhism. We saw the Panchen Lama's monastery, the Tashi Lhunpo in Shigatse, Tibet (140 miles west of Lhasa). In the 1930s, over 6000 monks lived there; now there are only 600. Their lives are rigidly controlled by the communists. The Tibetan ideal of acceptance of the world and their argument that their system had worked for centuries was/is completely at odds with the Maoist view of changing the world through struggle. Mao believed revolution was necessary. Mao destroyed many of Tibet's monasteries, the centers of all Tibetan life. Today, the holy city of Lhasa feels like a Chinese city, yet for five centuries it was home to the Dalai Lama. His monastery is called the Potala. In 1936, the film "Lost Horizon" provided a westerner's vision of the Potala; it was a vision of a "perfect" place that people wanted to believe could exist (given that Europe was on the verge of a ghastly war). In the 1940s, Tibet's culture was still intact, just the two mountain climbers (one of which Brad Pitt portrayed in the movie). A French movie producer asks why westerners, with lots of money, are unhappy while Tibetans, with no material wealth, glow with happiness. We then saw footage of the present Dalai Lama (the Buddha of Compassion) when he was five years old. In 1949, the communists led by Mao, took Beijing. Within a year, the Chinese were in Lhasa. The 19 year old Dalai Lama traveled to Beijing to meet with Mao. He remembers Mao saying that "religion is poison". In 1959, the Dalai Lama fled to Dharmsala, India; he is still in exile there. Today, Brad Pitt, Martin Scorsese and others are banned from China as well. In response to questions about China's reaction to "Kundun" Michael Eisner (the CEO of Disney) said that he felt "the Chinese have acted very intelligently." The Chinese government doesn't want the world to know that it destroyed over 6000 of Tibet's religious shrines or that over one million, tens of 1000s of whom were tortured or executed, died during China's incursion. Today, the Jokhang temple still exists; it is the destination for all Tibetans who make the pilgrimage to Lhasa. While the Chinese government has suppressed images of oppression, their own government cameras filmed the March 1988 revolt when monks and ordinary people demanded the release of political prisoners and independence. They were crushed by the Chinese and the film was smuggled out, to be shown to the world. Today, Disney is looking to expand into China, with Disney stores and a theme park. Eisner says that Disney takes no position on human rights, either for or against. They are an entertainment company period. Another film, starring Richard Gere, looks at human rights, Chinese-style - and it is deplorable to the western eye. One director notes that the Chinese government-military complex has basically rendered the massive population of 1.2 (now 1.3) billion relatively mute. During his 1992 campaign, Clinton campaigned to condition China's "Most Favored Nation" trading status on progress in human rights. Yet in 1994, Clinton "delinked" human rights from trade with China. Since then, there have been no significant achievements in human rights. We go back to Lhasa yet again, and see how Lhasa is being remade into a Chinese city. There's a shiny new west gate that has replaced the prayer flags. The amusement parks and the disco bars have come, as has pollution from the concrete factories that belch out smoke. One Han Chinese in Tibet says that the Tibetans are "fine" but that they are lazy, with no ambition, and that they mostly love to eat and play. Today, Lhasa is surrounded by bands of security. The number of Chinese with jobs as police, paramilitary, and on the military installations outnumber the Tibetans living in Lhasa. A U.S. Congressman, Representative Frank Wolf (R-VA) says that US politicians are often refused VISAs to visit China and when approved, "watchers" are assigned them. He, on a clandestine visit, notes that the monasteries are run by the military. Monks and nuns are fingerprinted, attend mandatory communist-indoctrination classes, and must sign statements that the Dalai Lama is a separatist. Having a photograph of the Dalai Lama in one's home was recently banned and the police search private homes for these photos. From the viewpoint of the Tibetans, this is cultural genocide. Wolf says that things in Tibet are worse now than even in the recent past. We then go to the Dalai Lama's monastery in Dharmsala, India. The people obviously revere him. He symbolizes Tibet to his people. The Dalai Lama has said that he'd go back if allowed to continue as the religious leader, but this is increasingly unlikely. When he tried to install the new little Panchen Lama (a boy six years old), the Chinese retaliated by putting the boy and his family under house arrest in Beijing (they have not been seen since). The Chinese government installed its own 11th Panchen Lama. The Panchen Lama, second in the hierarchy to the Dalai Lama, is particularly important because it is he who selects the Dalai Lama. Now, the Chinese will choose the next Dalai Lama, so the cultural continuity of centuries will be broken.

Review: (1) The capital of Tibet is _ (2) Tibet was traditionally a theocratic territory. The religion is _ and the leader of Tibetans is _. (3) In 1950, the Chinese invaded Tibet. Who was the Chinese leader at the time? _ (4) In 1959, the Tibetan leader fled to the country of _. He now lives in the city of Dharamsala.(5) Michael Eisner, the head of Disney, said that the “Chinese have acted very intelligently”. What did they think they had acted so intelligently about? (6) Explain the significance of Clinton’s delinking of Most Favored Nation Status from human rights. (7) The Chinese are accused of “cultural genocide” in Tibet. Why? (8) Why is the proper selection of the Panchen Lama so important to the future of the Dalai Lama?

November 1:

What are the countries in this region?
Some were part of the former Soviet Union: Azerbaijan and the "stans" (which means 'home of') – Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan; one was invaded by the former Soviet Union but was never part of it: Afghanistan; Mongolia; and parts of China (Tibet, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia).

A little background on the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR or Soviet Union): The Rus, from which the name Russia comes, migrated from Scandinavia. Russia was a colonizer, colonizing nearby lands instead of distant ones. Russia was ruled by Czars (Tsars), with the last one being Nicholas II. In 1917, two revolutions occurred in Russia. During the first, the Czar was dethroned and he and his family were executed. In the second, the Bolshevik Revolution, proponents of various ideological stances (in terms of future governance) were in conflict. Lenin's ideas held sway. He was a visionary who looked to the works of Karl Marx. Karl Marx had observed the British Industrial Revolution. He saw how the capitalists replaced capital (e.g., equipment) for labor (workers). As workers became redundant, wages were depressed. New industries would employ some of these workers, but then the cycle would repeat itself. He thought that, at some point, the workers would no longer stand for this and a revolution would result. After the revolution, and a transition period, an egalitarian society would be possible. This is what he hoped for, but this is not what materialized. The USSR became a reality in 1924, the same year Lenin died. Stalin, a ruthless leader, was in power until his death in 1953. Many millions of his own people died under his rule. Somewhat ironically, it was under a progressive, forward-thinking communist that the USSR really began to disintegrate. Gorbachev became head of state in the mid-1980s. He introduced the concepts of glasnost (openness, in terms of media and communications) and perestroika (restructuring, primarily meaning selling off some of the state-owned industries to private investors). For a variety of reasons, the U.S.S.R. collapsed. After December 25, 1991, the Soviet flag no longer flew. From the U.S.S.R came 15 independent countries, some of which are in Central Asia.

In groups of two, students used the text to find information about the following: (1) Aral Sea (2) deserts/desertification (3) Turkestan (4) pastoralists/transhumance (5) climate differences (6) densely populated areas/most populous countries (7) population concerns in Tibet (8) Indo-European (9) Afghan ethnicity (10) different religions (11) Armenia/Azerbaijan conflict (12) oil and gas (13) different treatment of women.
Following are some notes to remember:
(1) The Aral Sea was, until the 1960s, the world's fourth largest inland sea. In 1959, the Soviets began to divert water from the rivers that flow into the Aral (the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya) for cotton production. This area is desert and cotton is very water-intensive. The result has been an environmental calamity which includes: shrinkage of the sea (decline of 60% of volume); water is 3 times saltier than in 1960; a salt desert has been created (40-50 million tons of salt are blown around the region annually); no fishing since 1983 (loss of fisheries and loss of livelihood); drier, more continental local climate; pesticide contamination; widespread illness, including tuberculosis, cancers, and childhood death.
(2) Much of the region is already either desert or semi-arid. Deserts, such as the Gobi, are becoming larger. Deforestation and agriculture are partially responsible.
(3) The people in a broad area referred to as Turkestan generally speak Turkish. Western Turkestan includes countries once part of the U.S.S.R.; here, one finds fairly large rivers fed by snowmelt. Eastern Turkestan is in China.
(4) Pastoralists tend livestock, such as sheep, for subsistence (they are producing for their own use). Transhumance involves moving the flock to lowlands in the winter and highlands in the summer. To be able to do this, the shepherd must have unfettered access to land.
(5) The dominant climate types are desert and semi-arid, although Tibet is designated as "H" (means that the climate changes at increasing altitudes). Smaller areas of temperate and continental climates are also found in the region.
(6) Population clusters are found in Inner Mongolia (in China) and in southern Uzbekistan. The most populous country in the region in Afghanistan, followed by Uzbekistan.
(7) Tibet has a harsh climate which doesn't support a large population. Over the centures, the birth rate remained low as many men became monks and as women often married more than one man (known as polyandry). Recently, the influx of Han Chinese has overwhelmed the Tibetan, especially in their capital (Lhasa).
(8) Central Asia appears to be the birthplace of the Indo-European peoples - the first speakers of Indo-European languages (of which English is one). The nomads of Central Asia were militarily powerful as they used horses and were not tied down to particular places. About 2000 years ago, the Indo-European languages began to be replaced by Altaic languages (Turkish is the one we most associate with this region today).
(9) Afghanistan is ethnically a very diverse country. The Pathans, who live in the south and east, are dominant. Other ethnicities are closely associated with the peoples of neighboring countries.
(10) Throughout much of this region, the dominant religion is Islam. In Tibet and Mongolia, the religion is Buddhism.
(11) After the collapse of the USSR, Armenia invaded Azerbaijan. Armenians in the highlands of Azerbaijan formed a "breakaway" republic. A little piece of Azerbaijan is separated from the rest of country (lying to the west of Armenia).
(12) Large reserves of oil and gas are found in Central Asia (Kazakhstan may have the world's 3rd largest reserves). As this is a land-locked region, it is difficult to transport the oil and gas out of the region. Long pipelines carry resources from the Black Sea and Caspian Sea areas to Central Asia and Russia. Proposed pipelines will carry oil and gas through/to Afghanistan, Iran, China, and eastern Europe.
(13) One indicator of how well a society treats its women is reflected in its literacy rate. The literacy rate for women in Afghanistan is abysmal, at 15%. On the other hand, Tajikistan's female literacy rate is reportedly 99%.

I'd also like for you to be familiar with Afghanistan. Afghanistan is slightly smaller than Texas and is arid to semi-arid, with many rugged mountains. The population is 24 million, with most of the people (82%) living in rural areas. The capital is Kabul. The life expectancy is low (45 years for females and 46 years for males), the infant mortality is very high (> 150 per 1000) and the literacy is quite low. The majority of people don’t even have access to safe drinking water. Afghanistan has a long history of turbulence, going back for centuries. At the beginning of the 18th century, the Russians arrived (wanting to secure access to sea ports), as did the British (who wanted to control the Indus to keep Indian rebels from threatening Britain’s colonial empire). The Russians relied on diplomacy and bribery. The British used force. The 1839-1842 British-Afghan War ended in Britain’s defeat. In a second war, 1878-1880, Afghanistan’s ruler (the Durrani dynasty) was overthrown. Afghanistan lost much of its territory. The borders were artificially set, so the people never recognized the boundaries, crossing with their herds in search of pastures. A third British-Afghan War, in 1919, ended with Afghanistan’s independence. An independence leader (Emir Amanullah Khan) came to power and modernized the country. He was overthrown in 1929, but the government system remained stable for a number of years. In 1953, a new modernization process was initiated. Utilities were nationalized. Roads, schools, hydroelectric systems, and irrigation systems built. Obligatory use of the veil (chador) by women was abolished.The armed forces were reorganized. In 1963, there was a change of government, with a military overthrow of the government in 1973. A popular uprising occurred in 1977 after one of the party leaders was murdered. In 1978, a new leader introduced reforms: Compulsory literacy; Abolition of the dowry system and other traditional customs; Radical land reforms. The clergy and elite disagreed with the reforms and the leader was murdered in 1979. A period of great instability resulted (e.g., there were 25 different cabinets in 1978-1979). Soviet troops entered Afghanistan in late 1979 and placed Babrak Karmal in power. The Soviet presence triggered a sense of solidarity among Islamic fundamentalists, who came into Afghan territory to fight “Satan.” These expeditions were reportedly financed by Saudi Arabia. These fundamentalists came to be known as the mujahedin.About 6 million fled and over one million were killed. In excess of 10 million landmines were laid. The US got involved, siding against the Soviets and thus with the Islamic fundamentalists.In 1988, an agreement was reached whereby Soviet troops would leave. By 1992, the government was headed by 4 vice presidents. They indicated a willingness to negotiate with the rebel groups. Many were unhappy about certain rebel groups being legitimized and fighting broke out. Many civilians left Kabul because of the violence. The UN announced a $10 million aid program, for food and medication. By this point, 60% of the country’s productive structure was destroyed and Afghanistan had become the world’s largest producer of opium. The government collapsed. In January 1994, the fighting became so bad that 75% of Kabul’s 2 million people fled. In 1995, the Taliban (students, in Persian) entered southern Afghanistan. They are mostly Pathans (Pashtun). They aimed to create a united Islamic government – and were widely supported within the country. As they enjoyed victory after victory, by 1996 they were able to put in place their ideas of the Koran, which included Sharia law: women were banished from the public sphere and from the education system. They banned music and singing (except for hymns), movies, plays, alcohol. By 2001, the Taliban controlled 90% of Afghanistan, but was recognized by only 3 countries as a legitimate country. October 2001, the war against the Osama bin Laden and the Taliban began. This war came on the heels of a severe drought. Today, the Taliban is again a force outside the capital, especially in the east and southeast parts of the country. Hamid Karzai is the head of state; he is also Pathan (Pashtun).

Test #2 key:
If your test began with 1. According to the ..., then the answers are: (1) c (2) a (3) b (4) a (5) d (6) b (7) b (8) c (9) f (10) a (11) b (12) c (13) d (14) b (15) c (16) kb (17) ic (18) ae (19) lb (20) ib (21) za (22) if (23) pa (24) pd (25) mb (26) kf (27) ma (28) la (29) ea (30) eb (31) jb (32) ig (33) oa (34) kg (35) ba (36) sb (37) db (38) ia (39) be (40) bc (41) ld (42) ie (43) xa (44) aa (45) ac (46) kc (47) na (48) lc (49) bb (50) sa

If your test began with 1. In 1884-5 ..., then the answers are: (1) b (2) a (3) d (4) c (5) a (6) b (7) f (8) a (9) c (10) d (11) b (12) c (13) b (14) c (15) b (16) ae (17) lb (18) ib (19) za (20) if (21) pa (22) pd (23) kb (24) ic (25) mb (26) kf (27) oa (28) kg (29) ba (30) sb (31) db (32) ia (33) be (34) bc (35) ld (36) ie (37) xa (38) aa (39) ac (40) ma (41) la (42) ea (43) eb (44) jb (45) ig (46) kc (47) na (48) bb (49) sa (50) lc

November 8:

Key terms:
(1) An idea system called __ is especially important in China and the Koreas. These ideas, from a 6th C BC philosopher, were aimed at generating social stability. (Confucianism)
(2) Adoption of his ideas resulted in the __ system. This system involved filling key government positions via a rigorous examination process. (Mandarin)
(3) Traditional religious practices in China have focused on the unique attributes of specific places. This phenomenon is called __. (particularism)
(4) Many Japanese factory owners site their dirtiest factories in poorer countries, such as Indonesia, to avoid polluting their own country. This phenomenon is called __. (pollution exporting)
(5) A woman who lives down the street from me is skilled in the Asian practice of designing buildings and landscaping in accordance with spiritual powers. This practice is called __. (geomancy or feng shui)
(6) The ideas of an economist named __ helped form the ideology for the Soviet and Chinese communist systems. (Marx/Marxism)
(7) Many Koreans have left their country and moved to Canada, the U.S., or maybe Australia. This phenomenon is known as the Korean __. (diaspora)
(8) At outcast group of Japanese whose ancestors worked in leathercraft and other industries considered “polluting” are called the Eta or __ (Burakumin)
(9) Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are common in East Asia because several of the Earth’s building blocks intersect here. These rock blocks are called __. (tectonic plates)
(10) Adjacent to the Gobi Desert, once arable land is becoming desert-like. This phenomenon is called __. (desertification)
(11) In Japan, Tokyo lies within a zone of coalesced metropolitan areas. One large city runs into the next. This is an example of a/an __. (superconurbation)
(12) After WWII, the U.S. and USSR became adversaries in what is known as the __. China aligned with the USSR and Japan with the US. (Cold War)
(13) In China, the non-Han people are usually classified as __, with the implication of traditional village life. This is not always accurate. (tribal)
(14) While China wasn’t exactly colonized, many countries established __ in China. These were areas where the economic interests of particular European countries prevailed. (spheres of influence)
(15) More recently, we’ve seen the creation of __, areas where foreign investment is welcome and state interference is minimal. (Special Economic Zones)
(16) We have one in our Midwest – shuttered factories and out-of-work laborers. In China, this area is located in the northeast. This zone of decaying factories is called the __. (rust belt)
(17) Today, we see growing __ in China. The rich get richer and the poor get poorer. (social and regional differentiation)
(18) In southwestern China, many of the tribal peoples practice slash and burn, called __. (swidden agriculture)
(19) Many of the non-Han people live in areas designated as __. For example, Tibet is one of these. (autonomous region)
(20) In English, each letter in the alphabet represents a sound. In Chinese, each character represents an idea. This system is called __ writing. (ideographic)
(21) The warrior class of premodern Japan was called the __. A movie, starring Tom Cruise, was about the last of these warriors. (samurai)
(22) Also in Japan, a very strong military leader who showed respect to the emperor, but was actually the one in power, was called a/an __. (shogunate)
(23) On a per capita basis, Japan had a higher __ than the US in 1999. This is an economic measure of goods and services produced within the country, plus the net income from abroad. (gross national income)
(24) If you just want to take into account the goods and services produced within the country (and leave out that from abroad), the economic measure is called the __. (gross domestic product)
(25) __ is market freedom, with little governmental control (laissez-faire)
(26) The Chinese characters incorporated into the Japanese language are called __. (kanji)
(27) To make the Japanese language flow better, additional symbols were developed (a combination of a consonant and a vowel sound). These are called __. (hiragana)
(28) Another reason that these languages are difficult for English-speakers (and others) is because they are __ - that means that the same set of basic sounds may have very different meanings depending on the pitch with which one makes the sound. (tonal)
(29) Walter Christaller developed a theory called __ in the 1930s. This theory helps one understand the hierarchy of Chinese cities, with major cities encircled by smaller cities, then villages. (central place theory)
(30) About 10 million people live in Seoul, South Korea. No other South Korean city is anywhere near as large. Seoul is, therefore, an example of __. (urban primacy)
(31) The reason that the Yellow River bed is higher than the surrounding land is because of centuries of carrying a huge __ - made up of clay, silt, and sand in the water. (sediment load)
(32) Much of this sediment is __, fine, wind-blown material deposited during the last Ice Age. (loess)
(33) The Shanghai metropolitan area is an example of a/an __ landscape. This landscape has been heavily transformed by people’s activities. (anthropogenic)

China: Translation: Since Chinese is written in characters that express ideas instead of an alphabet associated with sounds, it is very difficult to translate Chinese characters into the Roman alphabet. The two attempts are: Wade-Giles, a European attempt that gave us Peking (the capital), Mao Tse-tung (the communist leader), Yangtze (the river) versus Pinyin, a Chinese attempt that gave us Beijing (the capital), Mao Zedong (communist leader), Chang Jiang (river). In Pinyin, "Q" has a "ch" sound (thus, Qina) while "X" has a "sh" sound. In Chinese, the last name is first, so Mao Zedong's last name is Mao.

November 10:

We watched an hour-long film entitled Great Wall across the Yangtze. This great engineering feat is
scheduled to be completed in 2009. When completed, the dam will be 610' high and 1.3 miles across. A 360
mile reservoir (1/2 the length of California) will lie behind the dam. The dam will take 15 years and $30 billion to build. While navigation will be aided, the primary purposes of the dam are flood control and electricity
generation. In the process, about 1.5 million people will be displaced. The Yangtze River begins in Tibet, where it is known at the River to Heaven. As it cascades off the Tibetan plateau, it becomes the River of Golden
Sands; this stretch is over 1000 miles long. The last leg, over 2000 miles long, is known as the Long River.
Finally, it empties into the ocean near the city of Shanghai. Over one third of China's people live within the
Yangtze River watershed and half of China's food is produced there. The Yangtze is so important that an old
Chinese saying goes, "If you haven't traveled up the Yangtze, you haven't been anywhere." It is, indeed, the
gateway to China. The rapids are incredible and, in the old days, "trackers" would pull the ships through these
raging rapids. If one lost his footing, he was cut loose and allowed to fall into the water; otherwise, more would
be killed. The Yangtze is China's most dangerous river. In the past 2000 years, there have been 215
catastrophic floods. Over 300,000 died in its water during the last century. Early on, people believed that the
flooding was caused by the unhappiness of the gods or that a dynasty was about to change. More recently,
Chinese have come to believe that they can control the Yangtze. Sun Yat-sen introduced the idea of the Three
Gorges Dam (he died in 1925). After the 1954 flood, the government began to seriously consider this dam. In
1994, construction began. In 1998, the river "retaliated" and 4000 died, 14 million became homeless, and there was $24 billion in damage. So, from the perspective of the Chinese government, controlling flooding on the
Yangtze will save billions of dollars. It will also generate electricity. China's growing economy means that its
demand for electricity is enormous. Burning coal has caused terrible air pollution (some of the worst in the
world) and, today, China is the world's second biggest emitter of carbon dioxide. It is predicted that the Three
Gorges dam will be able to generate enough electricity to meet 10% of the future demand (85 billion kw per
year); this is comparable to 35 million tons of petroleum, 15 nuclear plants, or 50 million tons of coal. One of the problems is, however, that these goals conflict. If you want to control floods, you keep the reservoir low. If you want to generate electricity, you keep it high. Electricity makes money and money generally carries the day. Underlying all of this is China's political goal. It is said that China wants to show that, while it has been through
some rough times, it is now standing tall. China has "arrived" as a technological superpower. These huge dams
are, in China and elsewhere, monuments to "progress". It must be remembered that there are other ways to fuel progress and there's always conservation. As for flood control, it would be better to put smaller structures on the tributaries to the Yangtze. While there are dissenters, both in and out of China, the world's largest peacetime evacuation is proceeding. Already, 160,000 have been moved and over 1 million more will be moved. Thirteen cities, 140 towns, and over 1300 villages will be submerged. Many residents seem willing to leave. Urbanites believe they'll get better houses and better jobs; that they'll become rich as the result of theThree Gorges. It was pointed out that the government has focused mostly on the cities. The reason is that all the government agencies are in the cities. The government needs to focus on the rural people who actually depend on the land for their livelihoods. There is some resistance among the farmers, who are now being asked to move from good land to mountain areas. As one commented, if the mountain areas were any good, people would already be living there. There is no room to resettle. The government has pledged to give money and/or land, but while some believe that the government has a stake in seeing the people prosper, others think the government has tricked them. One angry woman charged the government with corruption. Some are signing petitions, a risky thing to do in this repressive, Communist country. In 1958, 150 were arrested for protesting a dam and ten were actually executed. A few years ago, 170 were arrested and no one knows what happened to them. During the Great Leap Forward (which wasn't really), a big dam was built on the Yellow River. After 400,000 were displaced, the dam didn't fill as planned and 300,000 returned. There are over 20 million reservoir refugees, most of whom have migrated to the cities. These unemployed people are a major source of government anxiety. When the Chinese government mowed down students in Tiananmen Square on June 4, 1989, some Three Gorges protestors were among those arrested. The author and interviewees in a book entitled Yangtze Yangtze (it was critical of the project) were arrested and some had to confess to their "wrong doing". The resistance was silenced. Passive resistance will continue, however, and it is probably the rural people who will be hurt most in the end. Some say that the government doesn't have the ability to resettle 1.5 million people. The Yangtze is also archaeologically rich. There are ancestral burial grounds and temples. It was the cradle of China's southern civilization, with over 5000 years of history. There are 1300 known archaeological sites that need to be excavated. In Dragon Bone cave, twelve miles from the Yangtze, a sub-species of Homo Erectus was found. It is thought to be 2 million years old, which would mean that the earliest humans would have had to have migrated from Africa one million years earlier than now thought. If the theory holds up, what an amazing find. The Ba are another people whose artifacts (quite advanced) and remains have been found in this area.There are over 100 Ba sites now known. These people were killed off in 316 BC by the advancing Qin. Above ground, the pain of losing ancient temples and shrines will be deeply felt. We saw an ancient village, built during the Ming dynasty, that has to a great extent remained unaltered for 500 years. The government has said that it will move this village to higher ground, but officials acknowledge that the time is short and only the most important will be saved. They hope to save 10-20% of the treasures. Centuries ago, literature and art were full of the wildlife of the Yangtze. Today, many of these creatures are endangered. Each year, huge quantities of raw sewage are poured into the Yangtze. Damming the river will hold the sewage back. Many industries will be submerged. So, extinction is imminent for many of the creatures. The Baiji dolphin, an ancient mammal that moved from land to water about 70 million years ago, is on the brink of extinction. There are fewer than 100 left; there is little chance that it will survive. The finless porpoise, the Siberian crane, and the river sturgeon, among others, are in serious danger (changes in water flow and in water temperature, caused by the dam, are of particular concern). A journalist noted that when her grandmother traveled up the Yangtze, there were many dophins and other creatures. Today, there is little wildlife. Sediments are another peril. Each year, over 700 million tons of sediments find their way to the Yangtze; it is the world's fourth largest sediment carrier. After the dam is completed, the sediments could cause the water level right behind the dam to rise and then there would be a waterfall over the dam. The Chinese engineers are planning a sluice gate at the base of the dam which they think will be able to discharge sediments. This technology is unproven and, in fact, has never worked anywhere. If this experiment fails, future Chinese will gain no benefits from the dam. One more concern is that the dam could break. There is a one in 1000 chance of a break. This is a monster dam, 40 stories high, with 250,000 tons of steel, tons and tons of concrete, billions of tons of water, and this is an area prone to earthquakes! In 1975, dams on the Yangtze did collapse and 200,000 died. These were dams, built by the Soviets, that were supposedly indestructible (like the Titanic). Work proceeds and, in November 1997, the Yangtze was diverted. It is known that six US banks have underwritten a $340 million loan that will likely help finance the Three Gorges. The World Bank, the US government, and others have withdrawn support. It is now known that millions and millions of dollars, earmarked for the Three Gorges, have disappeared. In 2000, one corrupt official was executed for his theft of funds.

Review: (1) The largest dam in the world is currently under construction. It is the Three Gorges dam, being built on the _ River. (2) Who first introduced the idea of this gigantic dam (hint: a former Chinese leader who died in 1925)? _ (3) The Chinese government touts several significant benefits of the Three Gorges dam; name two of the benefits:  (4) The Three Gorges dam will also cause a number of significant problems. These problems fall into several areas. Name one of the social problems associated with the dam: Name one of the archaeological issues:
Name one of the ecological issues: (5) At the Three Gorges dam, silt will also be a problem. Explain the problem.

November 15: class cancelled due to illness

November 17: Legacy: The Mandate of Heaven

Michael Wood says that the Chinese created a moral order on earth. We search for the roots of the Chinese culture, going to Beijing to the "Temple of Heaven." In Beijing is the world's oldest pharmacy, established in 1663. In Chinese medicine is also a search for harmony on earth: the yin and yang of balance. "Dragon bones" were ground up for medicine; however, scholars realized that these bones had writing on them and believe that oracle bones were used to communicate with spirits. The Chinese civilization arose along the Yellow (Huang Ho) River. The Mandate of Heaven was considered to be a gift kept by the ruler only as long as his rule was just. Confucius transformed the magic associated with the Bronze Age into a conception of the state as the maintainer of moral order. Confucius lived during the Axis Age, a time when a number of the world's greatest thinkers were alive. Goodness was associated with building a just and stable society. People need to be taught goodness, but then they will regulate themselves. A moral society is bound together by mutual respect and trust. The rulers had to obey the "Golden Mean." The Chinese believe that nature is the source of all harmony and balance. Going to the Gobi Desert, we learn that the Silk Road brought ideas and goods in the 2nd century AD, from the Arab world to China. Up to that point, China was isolated from the rest of the world. At this point, influences, such as Buddhism from India, came to China. So, the three great streams of Chinese thought are: Confucius philosophy, Dao mysticism, and Buddhist religion. Missions to India were aimed at bringing back copies of the scriptures. In the 7th century, a temple was erected in Xi'an. By the 8th century AD, Xi'an was rivaled only by Baghdad and Constantinople. The Tang dynasty, an age of innovation, ended in social upheaval. China is credited with giving the world its first great cuisine. China also has the world's oldest restaurant, built in 1153. In the 13th century, the Europeans came to China for the first time. They found the greatest civilization on earth. During this time, China became the world's most populous country, but the country fed its people, and maintained the world's highest standard of living. When people's basic needs are met, the "higher life" can be spread to more people. One of the elements of a higher life is writing. Writing began as a tool of divination, but writing came to mean civilization itself. The Europeans opened up China and, since the 18th century, the east has felt the need to "catch up" with the west. But maybe the west needs to learn from the east about accepting limits.

November 22:
The physiography of South Asia is dominated by the Himalayan Mountains, which form a physical and cultural barrier separating South Asia from China.  Two major rivers flow out of the Himalayas: the Ganges River, which flows across northern India and into Bangladesh, and the Indus River, which flows across Pakistan.

The weather of South Asia is dominated by the monsoon, or a seasonal reversal of wind flow due to changing low and high pressure patterns.  The winter monsoon is characterized by high pressure over land and low pressure over the ocean, bringing cool, dry air streaming off the land mass.  The summer monsoon is characterized by a low pressure system on land and high pressure over the ocean, bringing warm, moisture-laden air ashore where it rises due to convectional activity and comes down as rain.  This seasonal summer rain brings life to the parched landscape.

The population of South Asia is heavily concentrated in the fertile river valleys of the Ganges and the Indus and along the west coastline of India where the brunt of the monsoon rains arrive.  The majority of the people still live in rural areas but several large cities are found throughout the region, Delhi, the capital of India, Calcutta, Bangalore, and Bombay, the largest city in India.  More than one billion people now inhabit India, and the population of the whole region now exceeds 1.3 billion people

 South Asia is panoply of cultures, languages and religions.  People of Indo-Aryan descent dominate Northern India, while people of Dravidian descent dominate southern India.  Languages across northern India are from the Indo-European group, while in south India they are from the Dravidian family.  India is a classic example of a polygot state and linguistic nationalism is one of many forces threatening to tear the nation apart.  English is the lingua franca of India.  India is primarily Hindu (85%) with significant minorities of Muslims and Roman Catholics.  The map below displays the distribution of India’s different religious faiths.  Hinduism is a passive religion in that it does not actively seek new followers.  Hindu followers believe in the caste system, which is a stratified system based upon occupation into which one is born cannot change. 

Pakistan, Bangladesh and the disputed state of Kashmir
The neighboring states of Pakistan and Bangladesh are exclusively Muslim and were formed during the violent Partition from India following the exit of the British colonials in 1947.  Bangladesh sits at the mouth of the Ganges River and is blessed with some of the most fertile alluvial soils in the world but is also cursed with one of the highest population densities in the world as well, with more than 125 million people crammed into an area the size of Kentucky.

Several violent separatist movements continue to plague India, most notably in Sikh-held Punjab and in Kashmir, where Pakistan has instigated cultural irredentism amongst Muslims in an attempt to grab this territory from India. 

Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka has been torn apart by a civil war between the majority Sinhalese and the minority Tamil, who wish to establish an independent nation along the eastern coast of the island.

Nepal is a poor landlocked nation at the rooftop of the world that has kept afloat through tourism revenues, as people come to see the tremendous physical and varied cultural geography of this small nation.

November 24: class cancelled due to illness

November 29:
Hinduism: ~ 2000 BC – world’s oldest major religion (earliest surviving documents ~ 1500 BC); about 1500 BC the Aryans invaded from the north and pushed the indigenous dark-skinned Dravidians south. The Aryans probably originated the caste system (based, originally, upon skin color). Today, the caste system is not based upon skin color, but upon occupation and other factors. The Brahman (the priest, teacher caste) is at the top, followed by Kshatriya (warrior), Vaisya (merchants), Shudra (agrarian), and below caste – dalits (untouchables, or harijan). There are 2 scriptures = Vedas (old) and Upanishads (newer). Hindus, while very diverse in beliefs, show a respect for life, believe in rebirth – reincarnation, believe that the soul emancipated by duty (dharma) … knowledge, devotion, believe in karma – deeds, conduct – previous life. In many ways, Hinduism is a tolerant faith. A person can find philosophical justification for almost any ethnical norm. Hinduism is tied to the Indian landscape. The Ganges River, though polluted, is the most sacred river in India. Many embark on pilgrimages to the Ganges.

History: The earliest civilization we know of is the Indus Valley Civilization (in today's Pakistan, along the Indus River). This was the Harappa civilization and Mohenjo Daro (a sophisticated city built 4500 years before present) is its most famous city. The Aryans invaded 3500 years before present).

In Hindu belief systems, women cause pollution and harm unless married. Some couples get high tech ultrasound and if the fetus is a girl, abort her. It is sometimes said that killing a baby girl at birth is kinder to her than a life of tears. In some areas of India – 120 men for 100 women (expect 105 men for 100 women at birth and within a few years 100 men for 105 women). In 1961, Dowry Prohibition Act was passed; the law has failed. Dowry is often a year’s salary or price of a house. “Kitchen accidents” occur with some regularity. Between 1988 and 1993, over 20,000 wives murdered or committed suicide because they couldn’t meet demands for more dowry. In 1995, over 7000 of this type of fatality was reported by Indian government.

We watched a 25 minute video entitled Saheri's Choice. Most of this video takes place in the Indian state of Rajasthan (in the northwestern part of the country). In rural India, child brides are still common. Girls are supposed to be 18 and boys are supposed to be 21 to marry, but many of the marriages are obviously between much younger boys and girls. Marriages are arranged based upon caste, economic considerations, the stars, and family acquaintance. Even middle class families feel that marriage is too important to be left to chance. In the capital, Delhi, marriage bazaars are held. Families negotiate after determining the compatibility in terms of the zodiac, money, and position. While many complain about the dowry, it is still a fact of life in many areas. If the dowry is considered insufficient, violence against women may result. In this video, Saheri and the rest of her family travel to New Delhi in the off season (agricultural) to sell newspapers. Each makes about 60 cents a day. From this they must pay $8 per month for their slum dwelling, buy food, and save a little to take home. When a child, Saheri was married off to another child. In Delhi, she met a boy named Babu Lal) who she wants to marry. They are of the same caste. She has a fantasy of him taking her far away, maybe to Punjab. In reality, this action would bring dishonor to the family. Saheri's sister remembers a boy and girl running off; they were of different castes. When they came back, the boy was killed. The girl went crazy. In the film, we saw a Hindu exorcist who is brought in to try to cure a girl who's gone crazy. Then, we saw the celebration of Holi (this festival, which marks the beginning of spring), is on March 29). It is a day of fun and frivolity, during which friends splash colored water on each other and smear colored powder on faces. Then, we hear that Saheri's in-laws need her to come to their house; they want her to cook. She goes but she doesn't like it. She runs away. She wants her father to have the marriage annulled. The father decides to call in a loan made to the in-laws. If they can make the loan, Saheri will go to the in-laws for good, but the father knows that the family won't be able to repay the loan. Finally, after much negotiation, the marriage is annulled. Back in Delhi, Saheri says that the men are very bad. They proposition her, but this is where she wants to live. It is ironic that Saheri sells newspapers, when she can neither read nor write. In fact, only 1 in 5 females in Rajasthan can.

South India’s suicide rate of 10-19 year olds is the highest in the world (14.5:100,000 world rate) 58 per 100,000 (boys) and 148 per 100,000 (girls), hanging and poisoning via pesticide are the most common methods.

Female literacy: About 43.5% overall, but in northern villages the literacy is much lower (< 20%). An exception is the southwest Indian state of Kerala: 29 million population on area < 10% area of CA (CA’s 2000 population = 35.4 million); 25% unemployment; and per capita income is below the national average. But, Kerala is the land of coconuts, very beautiful, near 100% literacy, lowest birthrate in India, TFR = replacement, infant mortality rate = 17, diversity = Hindu, Christian, Jew, Muslim , long history of social justice, highest age at marriage, longest life span, free education, more females than males. Social scientists debate how Kerala has accomplished this standard of living. Possibilities: infusion of wealth from tourism, ability of the people to go outside the country and then bring back innovations;  socialist governments have invested in people (free education, free health care, etc.); long tradition of matriarchy, and fishing, rather than farming, culture had involved women in the businesss world.

Review: (1) In the video Saheri’s Choice, we learned about some traditional practices in India. Saheri’s sister told of a boy who married and was killed as a result. Why was he killed?  (2) We also saw celebration of the festival of spring, with colored powders and fireworks. This is the festival called _ (3) In India, population is very dense, with particular density along the _ River, in the north. (4) In southwestern India lies the state of _. It is not a wealthy state, but it is often used as a model of high social development. (5) The majority of India’s people are practitioners of what religion? _ The old scriptures are called the _. (6) South Asia’s earliest known civilization was in the Indus Valley (in what is today Pakistan). The most famous city from this civilization is the city of _. (7) Who are the Dalits?

I'd also like for you to find the answers to the following questions:
(8) religion of Sri Lanka:
India:
Pakistan and Bangladesh:
Nepal:
Bhutan:
Maldives:
(9) physical geography:
what’s the monsoon:
what are the ghats:
(10) what’s the primary language family in northern India?
In southern India? 

GEO 160: Articles for Critical Thinking Essay #3
Please select five (or more) of the following articles. See your syllabus for instructions on writing the two-page essay. Due the last day of classes (although you may certainly turn it in sooner).
From the BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk):
S Korea Rebuked over Nuke Tests (11-26-2004)
Life as a modern slave in Pakistan (11-25-04)
China’s boom take tool on staple food (11-19-2004)
Jakarta to crack down on loggers (7-02-04)
Vietnam’s war against Agent Orange (6-14-04)
Hopes fade for Chinese miners (11-29-04)
World ‘failed’ Bhopal gas victims (11-29-04)

From Environmental News Network (http://www.enn.com):
WWW and National Geographic Kick Off Study of the World’s Largest Freshwater Fish (11-17-2004)

Make-up test (if you have an excused absence):
December 1, 10:30 am - 12 noon, OB 246
December 2, 5-6:30 pm, OB 246

December 1:
Southeast Asia: I began by reading an essay by Karen Osman, of Louisville, KY, that was printed in World Ark (if you're interested in this publication, go to http://www.heifer.org/). The essay reads: "Our tour bus stopped on a busy highway in Phitsanulok, Thailand, so we could look down on the River Nan, 20 feet below us. It was morning rush hour. Cars, motorbikes, and bicycles whizzed by at alarming speed, many of them loaded with an unbelievable number of passengers. Honking, coughing and sputtering, they made a terrible din and choking pollution. I turned my back on them and sat down to watch the tranquil river scene. On the riverbank, an old man worked in a small vegetable garden. His two dogs stood watch, snarling and making feints at us foreigners. The man didn't lift his head but continued weeding, obviously used to tour buses and camera-wielding tourists. On the river were several neat but dilapidated houseboats. A plank was placed between two of them so that people could come and go without stepping to the shore. A young woman, graceful and intent, glided across to her neighbor's house. Several women had gathered to cook something in a communal pot. The sound of their laughter lifted gently over the noisy traffic. The river rolled in peace around a young man bathing in the water. It all looked natural and, somehow, much more real than I, with my camera, my malaria pills and my bottled water. A tap on the shoulder interrupted my reverie. "Doesn't this break your heart?" asked one of my travel companions. The developed world rushed in and crowded out the peace. Was my heart breaking? Well, yes. But not for the old man, the young woman and the bather. My heart was breaking for my own limitations. Sure, there were no microwaves, VCRs and innerspring mattresses on those houseboats. I would bet those women weren't cooking prepackaged, homogenized, pasteurized, artifically-colored, genetically enhanced food. They probably didn't know Liz Claiborne from Christian Dior. Their perfume came from fragrant flowers, artfully arranged around spirit houses and ancestor shrines. I could think of worse ways to live. Was I romanticizing? Perhaps. But, you see, without enough shots to keep even the most flagging drug company solvent, I could not bathe in the River Nan or eat from that cookpot. In my world, one does not interact with Earth, one subdues it or wards it off. For my efforts, I have a longer life span, more money and a better education than the women of Phitsanulok. I also have a hole in the ozone that belongs to me and, if I keep on destroying, I may never see another mountain lion. I live in a world where it's a rite of passage to sever ties with one's family and brag that you don't know your neighbors. Old people don't raise vegetables on riverbanks. They live alone, or in nursing homes. I don't bring flowers and ask God to bless my planting. I don't plant. I know that physical want and lack of health care destroy both body and spirit. I also know it's sad to live in a world where other people are tools for one's use and the Earth is only something on which to build. Watching life flow by on the River Nan, I recognized poverty in both lifestyles. I understood how what we tourists pack in our bags blinds us to our own neediness, even as travel heightens our awareness of others' poverty. So from now on, I'll be careful about what I pack and even more careful about what I leave behind. I shall grope for the planks in my own cultural eye before I point to the splinters in the eyes of others. Only then can East and West, rich and poor, old and young truly see one another and share with one another the riches each has to offer.

Studied studied the maps in the textbook, noting important facts on a basemap of the region. Following are some points to remember:
(a) This region is divided between a mainland and islands. The Philippines and Indonesia are island chains, known as archipelagoes.
(b) Part of Malaysia is on the mainland and part island. The island, on which part of Malaysia lies, is Borneo - and it is divided between Malaysia (north) and Indonesia (south). The reason is that Malaysia was a British colony and Indonesia was a colony of the Netherlands (Dutch).
(c) The most easterly Indonesian island is Irian Jaya (or West Papua), but it is only half an island. The eastern half of the island is an independent country, Papua New Guinea. Again, this is an issue of colonial rule.
(d) Notice the two very small countries, Brunei (which is on Borneo) - a constitutional monarchy; and Singapore, a republic that is very strict. Singapore's population is only about 4.3 million, and with only 200 square miles, this completely urbanized country (city-state) fits the definition of a microstate.
(e) Notice East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. It was colonized by the Portuguese, who offered independence to East Timor in 1975. Instead, the Indonesia invaded, killing 1/3 of the population. A rag-tag resistance movement fought to Indonesians for years. In August 1999, the East Timorese did get to vote on the issue of independence, but Indonesian militias destroyed much of the place after the vote. The people refused to give up and after electing a new president in April, East Timor became an independent country in May, 2002. Viva Timor!
(f) Burma has another name: Myanmar. Myanmar is the name given it by the military rulers. Living conditions in Burma are very harsh.
(g) Cambodia also has another name: Kampuchea. Kampuchea is the name using the Khmer spelling. The people of Cambodia are the Khmer. In the late 1970s, a communist named Pol Pot rose to power as head of the Khmer Rouge (rouge = red = communist). His idea was to make Cambodia an agrarian society. The urban people were turned out of the cities, and were forced to work in the fields. Spies told on anyone who appeared to be educated or in any way resistant to Khmer Rouge rule. All potential resisters were executed. The estimated death toll ranges up to 25% of the population killed. This heinous period is depicted in the movie The Killing Fields.

Here are points from the students in the two classes; these are also important points to remember:
Of all the countries in Southeast Asia, Thailand was the one that was not officially colonized.
Religious diversity in Southeast Asia includes Islam in the islands and Buddhism on the mainland, with pockets (in the more remote areas) of animism. Christianity (particularly Roman Catholicism) is dominant in the Philippines and some other areas.
Almost all of the countries of Southeast Asia are members of ASEAN (the Association of SE Asian Nations).
Southeast Asia lies on the "Ring of Fire," a tectonically active area where a number of tectonic plate converge.
The Philippines became a colony of the U.S., as a result of the Spanish-American War.
Ocean pollution and deforestation are pervasive throughout Southeast Asia.
Almost all of Southeast Asia has a tropical climate: tropical rainforest, tropical monsoon, or tropical savanna.
While there are modes of high population density in Southeast Asia, the island of Java is a relatively large area that is very densely populated.
In the islands, most people speak one of the Austronesian languages, while the language families on the mainland are more diverse.

Review: (1) Two countries in Southeast Asia have two names. One is Burma, which is also known as __. Why the second name? __ The other one is Cambodia, also known as __. Why the second name? __ (2) The newest country in the world is __. It became independent in May, 2002. (3) The eastern side of the island is Papua New Guinea. The western side, part of the country of Indonesia, is called __. (4) Why is Singapore sometimes referred to as a microstate?__ (5) A remnant of the Hindu culture is found on the island of __; it is part of the Muslim country of Indonesia. (6) Indonesia was a colony of __ until WWII. After the war, it gained its independence. The first president of independent Indonesia was Sukarno.

GEO 160: Films
If you haven’t completed all your critical thinking essays, you may watch one (or up to two) of the following films. Write your last critical thinking essay (see syllabus for instructions) on the film watched.
Broken Down Palace (Thailand)
The New Rulers of the World (mostly Indonesia)
Legacy: The Burden of Time (Middle America)
The Collapse of the Aral Sea
Small Happiness (China)
Triumph of Evil (Rwanda)
Death of a Nation (East Timor)
Viva Timor (East Timor)
Amandla! (South Africa)
Rabbit-proof Fence (Australia)
Arab and Jew: Wounded Spirits in a Promised Land
Lumumba (movie about Congo)
Asoka (movie about India)

December 6:
Students watched Regret to Inform about the survivors of the Vietnam War (or, to the Vietnamese, the American War). The scenery is beautiful, but there are still few trees. This dearth of forest is the result of massive spraying of defoliants, such as Agent Orange. Some of the points made: the American soldiers didn't want to kill, but they had no choice; if you weren't dead, you weren't safe; young girls went into prostitution to survive; everyone was a victim, but especially the women and children; sometimes the effects of a war don't happen right away.

Notes from Regret to Inform: The documentary begins with a Vietnamese women singing a song, to her dead husband. Barbara Sonneborn, the narrator of the film, says that on her 24th birthday she received the news that her husband, Jeff Gurvitz, had been killed. We see a picture of them, as a young couple. Then we hear from other women: (1) A white American woman who met her future husband, Bill, in biology class. She knew immediately that he was the one. They fell in love, quickly and strongly. (2) A Navajo-American woman who fell in love with a rodeo rider. They traveled from Reservation to Reservation for the rodeos. He was proud to be an American and wanted to serve. (3) An African-American woman who said that her husband, Michael, and his younger brother both received their draft notices on the same day. Michael chose to go, because he didn't think that his little brother would survive. (4) A Vietnamese woman who said they always thought that life would surely return to normal. (5) A white American woman whose husband was a pilot. He had played team sports, and he couldn't let the team down. (6) A white American woman whose husband always said that he wanted his son to be proud of him. She told him that "he is proud of you!" One day he came home and said he'd enlisted. (7) A Vietnamese woman, a pediatrician, who said that her husband told her that Vietnamese women are not supposed to cry. She cried anyway, because you never know what will happen in war. After being introduced to these women, we join Vietnamese on the train, cooking and socializing. Barbara says that she asked a Vietnamese friend to come with her and serve as a translator. This Vietnamese woman left Vietnam in 1972, with her second husband (an American soldier). They are traveling to Que Son, the place where Barbara's husband was killed. Next, we hear from a young-looking, middle-aged Vietnamese woman who tells of bombs dropping on her house. She was young, and didn't understand why this is happening. She was confused. She said that, from then on, there was no black and white, only gray - like the smoke. They went to a bomb shelter, but there were too many people there. Her five year old cousin said he just had to have a drink of water. As he left the shelter, he tripped and was blown into little pieces. She said that she saw the horrified look in the American soldier's eyes. Then we go back to Barbara, who says that she and Jeff talked about how afraid she was that he might be killed - but they never talked honestly about the possibility that he would have to kill. We see a serene village, with lots of people. Barbara commented that, during the war, the American soldiers would have looked at these people as enemies, and they would have looked at him as the enemy too. The female pediatrician talks about the day the bomb dropped on her house, trapping her husband who she couldn't save. It was devastating to her that she was a doctor, who saved lives, and yet she couldn't save his. We then go to the pilot's wife, who says he was the youngest in the fleet, 23 years old. When they met for R&R in Hawaii, he told her that his number was coming up. She wishes he hadn't told her, because there was nothing she could do. We go back to the woman whose cousin was killed. She said that she passed an old man who was calling out for water, but she pretended not to hear him. Her girlfriend was wounded, and she took her food portion. She was 14 years old, but was forced to make the decision about who would live and who would die. She was going to live. We then see some war footage, with American soldiers in a village. They take an old man, but we don't know what happens to him. We then go to a Latino-American woman who said that her husband was patriotic, but that after he went to Vietnam, he realized that the people there had the same color skin and were about the same height as he. Then he began to wonder what this was all about. The African-American woman says that, after Michael came back home, he wouldn't talk about Vietnam. She insisted and finally he talked a little. She said that he really didn't want to kill, but he had no choice. We then hear Jeff's voice, a tape he made shortly before his death. Barbara received the tape after he had died, and was unable to listen to it for 20 years. On the tape, he said he saw four men walking with what could have been a weapon or could have been a hoe or a rake. He couldn't see killing a man for carrying a hoe or a rake. Then we learn that young women ran and hid from the American soldiers, because they feared being raped. As one Vietnamese woman said, "if you weren't dead, you weren't safe." Pigs, cows, anything that moved could be killed in "free fire zones." Many prostitutes solicited soldiers in Vietnam. One ex-prostitute (the woman whose cousin was killed) said that the men sometimes had sex with her, but sometimes they just yelled or cried or hit her. She used drugs to be able to sleep with these men. She said that if she had had another choice, she wouldn't have done what she did. We see the letters from Vietnamese soldiers to their wives, as well as letters from American soldiers. One American widow says she dreamed that she begged her husband to get away from the dangerous bushes. The next evening a telegram arrived telling her that her husband had been gravely wounded. She called her physician and, after hearing about the injuries, told her to pray that he dies. A Vietnamese widow tells of her 3 year old daughter being arrested with the rest of the family. The widow was ordered to testify against her husband, but she wouldn't. We heard from another Vietnamese woman who worked against the Americans at night. The young Vietnamese women disguised themselves as maids to learn where supplies were kept and what operations were upcoming. She was captured and tortured by the South Vietnamese. The Native American widow tells of her husband dying in Vietnam. He was blown up, so that he had to be identified by his dental plates. She still holds onto the hope that he may be alive somewhere in Vietnam. One Vietnamese widow says that she hopes that no one will ever against experience this pain. Barbara says that the news on TV was not the war - and that she couldn't conceive of the reality. We see Vietnamese children's pictures of the war, and then a wedding party. From there, we see some of the results of the chemical war (the use of Agent Orange and other defoliants). Barrels of Agent Orange were rolled out the back of the plane. Other planes sprayed the defoliant. Soldiers also sprayed the defoliant from the backs of trucks. The Vietnamese pediatrician who lost her husband in the war talked a little about the children who have been born with birth defects; the defects are likely the result of exposure to Agent Orange. Michael's widow tells of her husband coming home from Vietnam. To begin with, his joints bothered him, then he just didn't feel well. The pain crept all over him, he broke out in rashes all over his body, and he itched all the time. She said that sometimes the effects of war don't happen right away. Michael died of multiple cancers in 1989. We hear again from the ex-prostitute. She says that after coming to the U.S., her second husband didn't want much to do with her. She thought about suicide, but she made it out without losing an arm or leg. Wouldn't it denigrate the deaths of others for her to take her own life? One Vietnamese widow asks if the sons and daughters of American soldiers ask why their daddies didn't come home? The pilot's widow asked if her husband was a hero or a murderer. She asks if the Vietnamese people were a threat to his country. "No," she says. While she doesn't consider her husband a murderer, she believes that what he did was murder. One Vietnamese woman says that, as she comes to the end of her own life, she realizes that the people of the world are all the same. Barbara now comes to the place where her husband Jeff was killed. She meets a woman who was a Viet Cong leader at the time, and could even have had a role in Jeff's death. While the area used to be heavily forested, now there's scant vegetation and a metallic scent which she attributes to Agent Orange. The ex-Viet Cong leader says that of 107 villages in the area, 106 were burned to the ground. Barbara and the Vietnamese woman make an offering to everyone who died. We go back to the ex-prostitute who says that sometimes she's ashamed to cry because the losses of others have been so great. Barbara ends the video by going to the Vietnam Memorial in Washington DC. It is drizzling and solemn. A woman nearby is crying and says that her husband's name should be on the wall. She says that he left his soul in Vietnam, but it took seven years for his body to catch up. He committed suicide, leaving a note saying that he couldn't take the Vietnam flashbacks anymore.

December 8:

Vietnam is about the size of New Mexico; the capital is Hanoi; it is Communist. Saigon, the old capital of South Vietnam, has been renamed Ho Chi Minh City. In the mid 1800s, the French colonized.the area of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. In 1887, the area was consolidated as the Union of French Indo-China. Rubber plantations were established. Rice and timber were exported under French control. In the 1920s, organized resistance to European rule began. During WWII, the Japanese occupied the area. Upon the Japanese surrender in 1945, the Vietnam wanted independence. Communist groups in northern Vietnam were the strongest advocates for independence. Nevertheless, in 1946, the French reoccupied. Ho Chi Minh became president of a separatist government (in Hanoi). The French ceded the north to Ho Chi Minh but kept the south (calling it Cochin China). A war between French soldiers and Viet Minh raged for a decade. In 1954, the French suffered a serious defeat and withdrew. An International Peace Council divided the land into two countries: the communist north (allied with USSR and China) and a democratic south (allied with the US). Communist guerrillas in South Vietnam fought to overthrow the new government and unite with the north. In 1962, the US began sending large numbers of military advisors into Vietnam. By 1963, when J. F. Kennedy was assassinated, at least 23,000 US personnel were in Vietnam. Why? The "domino theory" = if Vietnam fell to communism, the rest of Southeast Asia would fall as well. Political analysts point out that Vietnam wasn't really about Vietnam - it was about proving to US allies that the US would be there when the chips were down (and would expect the same from the ally). In addition, it is often pointed out that war boosts economies; however, only certain parts of the economy are helped (industry that manufactures the equipment of war). The war, upon which the US spent $150 billion, drained projects at home. In 1964, the US began bombing North Vietnam; by the time it was all over, 70% of villages in the north were destroyed. By 1965, 1000s of US troops were in Vietnam and a ferocious land war was underway. In 1968 and 1969, over half a million US troops were in Vietnam. In 1972, 42,000 troops were in Vietnam at the end of the year. In 1973, troops were out and a ceasefire was signed. In 1975, Saigon fell to the Viet Cong. Vietnam became a Communist country. Over 58,000 US soldiers died and as many as 4.5 million Vietnamese died. Many Vietnamese fled the country after 1976 and came to be known as "boat people". A number of Vietnamese communities sprang up on the west coast of the US. The US imposed sanctions on Vietnam, which were lifted in 1994. Diplomatic relations were re-established with Vietnam in 1995. In July of 2000, a bilateral trade agreement between Vietnam and the US was signed. This is a poor country, with high literacy - a transnational's dream (low wages and a fairly skilled workforce). The legacy of Vietnam remains, as we saw in the video "Regret to Inform". There is also the frightful legacy of Agent Orange, a defoliant (used to kill the leaves on the trees that hid the Viet Cong) that was a combination of 2, 4 D and 2,4,5 T, with dioxin (TCDD) contamination. It is primarily the dioxin contaminants that have caused the adverse health effects. In July 2000, EPA established that Agent Orange is a carcinogen (cancer-causing), causes birth defects, and disrupts the endocrine system (thyroid, adrenal, pituitary). Spraying occurred from 1962 to 1971. About 3.7 million acres were sprayed. About 14% of South Vietnam's forests were destroyed, including 50% of its mangrove forests. The sprayers' slogan was "Only we can prevent forests".

The Pacific islands are grouped into: (1) Melanesia (the dark islands) borders northeastern Australia. The people are dark-skinned, have many distinct cultures and languages, and experience hot, densely vegetated landscapes. (2) Micronesia (the tiny islands) includes 1000s of small and scattered islands. The people are dark-skinned. The Marshall Islands are part of Melanesia. Marshall Islands: The US has conducted military tests and operations in the Marshall Islands since the end of WWII. Initially, the US used Bikini atoll, in the Marshall Islands, for testing nuclear weapons. The US conducted 67 nuclear tests between 1946 and 1958, with a total power 7000 times that of the bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan. The largest bomb, Bravo, was detonated in 1952; it was roughly 1000 times more powerful than the Hiroshima bomb. (3) Polynesia (many islands) occupies the greatest expanse of ocean. The inhabitants are lighter-skinned and are relative latecomers to the region. Easter Island (or, to the 1900 natives, Rapa Nui) is one of the islands. Some say it is "Earth writ small". About 400 AD, the first human colonists arrived and found a subtropical forest with abundant porpoises and seabirds. By 1200, the population may have been 7000 or as many as 20,000 (it has an area of 46 square miles). The people erected statues, weighing many tons. Trees were used as rollers to get the stone statues in place. Hundreds of unfinished statues were abandoned at the quarry sites and along the roads. By the end of the 15th century, the island's forests had probably been eliminated. Most of the land animal species were extinct and they could no longer hunt for porpoises because they lacked wood to build canoes. Crop yields declined because deforestation led to widspread soil erosion. In the end, the people probably turned to cannibalism. By 1700, there was severe population decline (the population was reduced to about 10% of its earlier figure). In 1722, when a Dutch explorer came upon the island on Easter Sunday, not a single tree stood on the island.

The Maori of New Zealand are also considered part of Polynesia, they share a lighter skin. The film Whale Rider is about the Maori culture. New Zealand was settled in the 9th century by Maori. The Maori have a strong affinity with the land and saw/see themselves as guardians of the land for future generations. In 1840, the British annexed New Zealand as colony. The treaty with Maoris was not upheld and the land was taken violently. After years of oppression and resistance, in 1997, the government agreed to pay compensation (NZ $170 million – and land). Another step foreward occurred in 1999, when 16 Maoris were elected to Parliament. A recent note: On July 31, 2004, a Maori married into the British Royal family (this is a first). Lady Davina Windsor, who is 20th in line to the throne, has married a builder and former sheep shearer from New Zealand after a four-year romance.

There are two kinds of Pacific islands: (1) the high islands, most of which were formed by volcanic eruptions. The Hawaiian islands are examples. Today, a new Hawaiian island is being created. It is still under the surface of the ocean, so it is called a "seamount". When it breaks the surface of the sea, it will become an island. Often, these islands have fertile soil and can support crops and, therefore, humans. Some of these islands are attached to continents, but when the sea rose at the end of the last Ice Age, the islands were cut off from the mainland. (2) There are also low islands. Coral reefs often form around the coasts of high islands. Over geological time, the mountain wears down below sea level. A roughly circular ring of coral is left. In the middle (where the mountain used to be) is a lagoon. The little coral islands, formed in a ring, are collectively known as an atoll. 

Australia: Australia has a population of 19 million, with most of the population near the coast. The British first colonized Australia for use as a penal colony. Today, the capital is Canberra, although the largest city is Sydney. The interior of Australia is mostly desert - called the bush or outback. It is here, primarily, that the native peoples of Australia live. These people, known as the Aborigines, probably migrated from Southeast Asia to Australia between 60,000 and 100,000 years ago. Fifty thousand year old evidence of occupance and 20,000 year old axes have been found. The Aborigines, while they probably had 200 or so distinct languages, did not write any of them down. Through oral traditions (stories, dances, song, art, rituals, etc.) the culture was carried from generation to generation.

End of material for Test 3.

Upcoming Presentations: * Nov. 30: 5-6:15 pm (LCC Auditorium), Lynne Shelton,  "Reflections on Brazil and Its Pursuit of Social Justice" * Dec. 2: 7 pm (Henry Clay High School Theater, 2100 Fontaine Road, Lexington), State Senator Ernesto Scorsone and State Rep. Kathy Stein, "What can Civil Libertarians Expect from the 2005 Kentucky Legislature?" Past presentations: * Sept. 8: Social Policy Then and Now and the Legacy of Robert F. Kennedy, 7:30 p.m., Room 230 of the UK Student Center Annex, Peter Edelman (former Assistant Secretary of Health and Human Services) * Sept. 10: Indigenous People and the Expansion of Civil Society in Mexico, 5 p.m., William T. Young Library         Auditorium, free and open to the public. Professor Emerita June C. Nash (City University of New York) * Sept. 11: A Conversation about American Power and Global Security, 10-11:30 am, Chapel Hill Presbyterian Church (3534 Tates Creek Road), John D. Stempel (Patterson School) and Hossein Motamedi (LCC), sponsored by the League of Women Voters of Lexington * Sept. 14: 5-6:30 pm in OB 230 (LCC Auditorium), a documentary entitled Outfoxed * Sept. 16: Defending Against Catastrophic Terrorism, 8-9 pm, WT Young Library Auditorium, a panel discussion organized by Patterson School of Diplomacy * Sept. 21: 5-7 pm in OB 230 (LCC Auditorium), a documentary entitled Truth, War and Consequences * Sept. 22: 1:30-3 pm (Radisson Plaza Hotel, Lexington), a panel discussion entitled "The Next City" (part of the Idea Conference) * Sept. 23: 7:30 pm (EKU, Student Services Building Auditorium), Peter Alegi, "Ten Years of Democracy: The Global Branding of South African Diversity" * Sept. 24: 5-6:30 pm (UK Student Center, Worsham Theater), Akbar Abbas (University of Hong Kong) to speak on "East Asia: Experiments in Architecture and Urbanism" * Sept. 28: 5-7 pm (LCC Auditorium), a film entitled Whale Rider about the Maori of New Zealand * Sept. 29: 7 pm (UK Gaines Center's Bingham-Davis House, 218 E. Maxwell St.), a film entitled GI Jane, for the Woman and War, History and Memory series * Sept. 29: 7 pm (Lexington Theological Seminary, Fellowship Hall), panel discussion entitled "Genocide in the Sudan, How Should the International Community Respond," sponsored by Bluegrass Chapter of the United Nations Association * Oct. 4: 7-8:30 pm (Court Room, College of Law, UK), presentation entitled "The First Monday in October: A Civil Rights/Civil Liberties Review of the U.S. Supreme Court's 2003-2004 Term and Preview of the 2004-2005 Term," sponsored by the Central Kentucky Civil Liberties Union * Oct. 5: 5-7 pm (LCC Auditorium), a documentary entitled Peace, Propaganda and the Promised Land * Oct. 7: 8 pm (Center Theater, Student Center, UK), James M. Lindsay, Council on Foreign Relations, "Globalization and the Bush Foreign Policy," sponsored by The Patterson School * Oct. 11: 7:00 pm (Gaines Center's Bingham-Davis House, UK), film entitled Battle of Algiers * Oct. 12: 7:30 pm (Young Library Auditorium), a documentary entitled Kilowatt Ours * Oct. 12: 5-7 pm in OB 230 (LCC Auditorium), a documentary entitled Ghost of Rwanda * Oct. 13: 11 am (Young Library Auditorium), Global HIV/AIDS, by Molly Lyons * Oct. 13: 12 noon (Young Library Auditorium), Global HIV/AIDS, by Molly Lyons * Oct. 14: 7 pm in Haggin Auditorium (Transylvania University), a public lecture by Christopher Hitchens entitled "The Trial of Henry Kissinger" * Oct. 16: Bluegrass Energy Expo film series (held at the Lexington Convention Center, admission is free): 1 pm (Thoughts in the Presence of Fear, Wendell Berry's poem); 2 pm (Kilowatt Ours, about electricity production in the SE US); 4 pm (Sludge, documentary about the Martin County  KY slurry spill of October 11, 2000) * Oct. 18: 7-8 pm (AT Lobby, LCC), Afro-Colombian with translator to speak about Plan Colombia: Gender and Race * Oct. 19: 5-7 pm (LCC Auditorium), a documentary entitled Heart and Minds about the Vietnam War * Oct. 25: 10-3:15 pm (AT Lobby), various speakers on election issues, as follows:     10:00 Ryan Kelly, Iraq     11:00 Hossein Motamedi, Israel and Iran     12:00 Craig Williams, War from a Vietnam Veteran's Perspective     1:00 Jeffrey Freyman, Internal Debates/Infighting Within the Bush Administration     2:00 Presentation on the Gay Marriage Amendment     2:35 Ernesto Scorsone, Domestic Issues * Oct. 25: 7:00 pm (Singletary Center, UK) AIDS in Africa Today: Reflection and Interpretation, a panel discussion including Stephen Kramer, Gillian Nur Samuels, Pat Francis, Rev. Malcolm Damon, Rev. Lonnie Turner, Fran Turner, Karen Krigger, and Paul D. Simmons * Oct. 26: 5:30-7:00 pm (Student Center - Small Ballroom, UK), Spirit of Ramadan, with speakers (Dr. and Mrs. Bagby) and free Middle Eastern food * Oct. 26: 7:00 pm (Gaines Center's Bingham-Davis House, UK), Afghanistan Unveiled, with discussion following. * Nov. 4: Panel discussion featuring members of the Madison County Chemical Weapons Working Group, 5:30-7:00 pm, 230 Student Center, UK * Nov. 8: 7:00 pm (Gaines Center's Bingham-Davis House, UK), LA Cueca Sola (about Chile in the years following the 9/11/73 military coup), with discussion following. * Nov. 9: 5-6:15 pm (LCC Auditorium), Lynn Phillips, presentation entitled "Sustainable Development in New Zealand: Globalization and Traditional Lifestyles" * Nov. 23: 5-6:15 pm (LCC Auditorium), Dave Cooper, presentation on Mountaintop Removal